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this organization was created

  • 1 crear

    v.
    1 to create.
    me crea muchos problemas it gives me a lot of trouble, it causes me a lot of problems
    Picasso creó escuela Picasso's works have had a seminal influence
    Ricardo crea obras de arte Richard creates works of art.
    Ellas crean criaturas raras They create weird creatures.
    2 to invent.
    3 to found.
    4 to make, to make up.
    * * *
    1 (gen) to create
    2 (fundar) to found, establish; (partido) to set up
    3 (inventar) to invent
    1 to make, make for oneself
    2 (imaginarse) to imagine
    * * *
    verb
    * * *
    VT
    1) (=hacer, producir) [+ obra, objeto, empleo] to create
    2) (=establecer) [+ comisión, comité, fondo, negocio, sistema] to set up; [+ asociación, cooperativa] to form, set up; [+ cargo, puesto] to create; [+ movimiento, organización] to create, establish, found

    ¿qué se necesita para crear una empresa? — what do you need in order to set up o start a business?

    aspiraban a crear un estado independiente — they aimed to create o establish o found an independent state

    3) (=dar lugar a) [+ condiciones, clima, ambiente] to create; [+ problemas] to cause, create; [+ expectativas] to raise

    el vacío creado por su muerte — the gap left o created by her death

    4) liter (=nombrar) to make, appoint
    * * *
    1.
    verbo transitivo
    1)
    a) <obra/modelo/tendencia> to create, < producto> to develop
    b) < sistema> to create, establish, set up; < institución> to set up, create; <comisión/fondo> to set up; < empleo> to create; < ciudad> to build
    2) <dificultades/problemas> to cause, create; <ambiente/clima> to create; <fama/prestigio> to bring; < reputación> to earn
    2.
    crearse v pron < problema> to create... for oneself
    * * *
    = design (for/to), construct, create, engender, establish, fashion, forge, form, invent, set up, compose, originate, bring into + being, mint, found, institute, come into + existence, mother, come up with.
    Ex. In lists designed for international use a symbolic notation instead of textual notes may be used.
    Ex. The objective in executing these three stages is to construct a document profile which reflects its subject = El propósito de llevar a cabo estas tres etapas es elaborar un perfil documental que refleje su materia.
    Ex. National agencies creating MARC records use national standards within their own country, and re-format records to UNIMARC for international exchange.
    Ex. In addition to problems with new subjects which lacked 'accepted' or established names, this guiding principle engendered inconsistency in the form of headings.
    Ex. The intention is to establish a general framework, and then to give exceptions or further explanation and examples for each area in turn.
    Ex. The preliminary discussions and proposals which led up to the AACR, did start out with an attempt to fashion an ideology, a philosophical context, for those rules.
    Ex. This article calls on libraries to forge a renewed national commitment to cooperate in the building of a national information network for scholarly communications.
    Ex. Formed in 1969, the first operational system was implemented in 1972-3.
    Ex. Frequently, but not always, this same process will have been attempted by the author when inventing the title, and this explains why the title is often a useful aid to indexing.
    Ex. By imposing a ban one is only likely to set up antagonism and frustration which will turn against the very thing we are trying to encourage.
    Ex. There have never been any attempts to compose a bibliography of US government documents relating to international law.
    Ex. In the 'office of the present', a document is usually produced by several people: someone, say an administrator or manager, who originates and checks it, a typist, who prepares the text, and a draughtsman or artist who prepares the diagrams.
    Ex. MARC was brought into being originally to facilitate the creation of LC catalogue cards.
    Ex. The article 'The newly minted MLS: what do we need to know today?' describes the skills which, ideally, every US library school graduate should possess at the end of the 1990s.
    Ex. The earliest community information service in Australia dates from as recently as 1958 when Citizens' Advice Bureaux, modelled on their British namesake, were founded in Perth = El primer servicio de información ciudadana de Australia es reciente y data de 1958 cuando se creó en Perth la Oficina de Información al Ciudadano, a imitación de su homónima británica.
    Ex. The librarians have instituted a series of campaigns, including displays and leaflets on specific issues, eg family income supplement, rent and rates rebates, and school grants.
    Ex. Some university libraries have been built up over the centuries; others have come into existence over the last 40 years.
    Ex. Necessity mothers invention, and certainly invention in the presentation of books mothers surprised interest.
    Ex. Derfer corroborated her: 'I'd be very proud of you if you could come up with the means to draft a model collection development policy'.
    ----
    * crear adicción = be addictive.
    * crear alianzas = form + alliances, make + alliances.
    * crear apoyo = build + support.
    * crear canales para = establish + channels for.
    * crear con gran destreza = craft.
    * crear consenso = forge + consensus.
    * crear demanda = make + demand.
    * crear de nuevo = recreate [re-create].
    * crear desconfianza = create + distrust.
    * crear desesperación = yield + despair.
    * crear falsas ilusiones = create + false illusions.
    * crear interés = build + interest.
    * crear la ilusión = generate + illusion.
    * crear lazos = build up + links.
    * crear lazos afectivos = bond.
    * crear posibilidades = open + window, create + possibilities.
    * crear problemas = make + waves, build up + problems, make + trouble.
    * crear prototipos = prototype.
    * crear relaciones = structure + relationships.
    * crearse = build up, hew.
    * crearse el prestigio de ser = establish + a record as.
    * crear servidor web = put up + web site.
    * crearse una identidad = forge + identity.
    * crearse una vida = build + life.
    * crear una alianza = forge + alliance.
    * crear una base = form + a basis.
    * crear una buena impresión en = make + a good impression on.
    * crear una coalición = forge + coalition.
    * crear una colección = build + collection.
    * crear un acuerdo = work out + agreement.
    * crear una familia = have + a family.
    * crear una ilusión = create + illusion.
    * crear una imagen = build + an image, create + image, summon up + image.
    * crear una injusticia = create + injustice.
    * crear una marca de identidad = branding.
    * crear una ocasión = create + opportunity.
    * crear una preocupación = create + concern.
    * crear una situación = create + a situation.
    * crear un clima = promote + climate.
    * crear un comité = set up + committee.
    * crear un entorno = create + an environment.
    * crear un equilibrio = establish + a balance.
    * crear un fondo común de conocimientos = pool + knowledge.
    * crear un fondo común de experiencias profesionales = pool + expertise.
    * crear un grupo = set up + group.
    * crear un índice = generate + index.
    * crear un mercado para = produce + a market for.
    * crear un perfil = compile + profile, formulate + profile.
    * crear un servidor web = open up + web site.
    * crear vínculos = build up + links.
    * crear vínculos afectivos = bond.
    * oposición + crear = opposition + line up.
    * que crea adicción = addictive.
    * que crea hábito = addictive.
    * volver a crear = recreate [re-create].
    * * *
    1.
    verbo transitivo
    1)
    a) <obra/modelo/tendencia> to create, < producto> to develop
    b) < sistema> to create, establish, set up; < institución> to set up, create; <comisión/fondo> to set up; < empleo> to create; < ciudad> to build
    2) <dificultades/problemas> to cause, create; <ambiente/clima> to create; <fama/prestigio> to bring; < reputación> to earn
    2.
    crearse v pron < problema> to create... for oneself
    * * *
    = design (for/to), construct, create, engender, establish, fashion, forge, form, invent, set up, compose, originate, bring into + being, mint, found, institute, come into + existence, mother, come up with.

    Ex: In lists designed for international use a symbolic notation instead of textual notes may be used.

    Ex: The objective in executing these three stages is to construct a document profile which reflects its subject = El propósito de llevar a cabo estas tres etapas es elaborar un perfil documental que refleje su materia.
    Ex: National agencies creating MARC records use national standards within their own country, and re-format records to UNIMARC for international exchange.
    Ex: In addition to problems with new subjects which lacked 'accepted' or established names, this guiding principle engendered inconsistency in the form of headings.
    Ex: The intention is to establish a general framework, and then to give exceptions or further explanation and examples for each area in turn.
    Ex: The preliminary discussions and proposals which led up to the AACR, did start out with an attempt to fashion an ideology, a philosophical context, for those rules.
    Ex: This article calls on libraries to forge a renewed national commitment to cooperate in the building of a national information network for scholarly communications.
    Ex: Formed in 1969, the first operational system was implemented in 1972-3.
    Ex: Frequently, but not always, this same process will have been attempted by the author when inventing the title, and this explains why the title is often a useful aid to indexing.
    Ex: By imposing a ban one is only likely to set up antagonism and frustration which will turn against the very thing we are trying to encourage.
    Ex: There have never been any attempts to compose a bibliography of US government documents relating to international law.
    Ex: In the 'office of the present', a document is usually produced by several people: someone, say an administrator or manager, who originates and checks it, a typist, who prepares the text, and a draughtsman or artist who prepares the diagrams.
    Ex: MARC was brought into being originally to facilitate the creation of LC catalogue cards.
    Ex: The article 'The newly minted MLS: what do we need to know today?' describes the skills which, ideally, every US library school graduate should possess at the end of the 1990s.
    Ex: The earliest community information service in Australia dates from as recently as 1958 when Citizens' Advice Bureaux, modelled on their British namesake, were founded in Perth = El primer servicio de información ciudadana de Australia es reciente y data de 1958 cuando se creó en Perth la Oficina de Información al Ciudadano, a imitación de su homónima británica.
    Ex: The librarians have instituted a series of campaigns, including displays and leaflets on specific issues, eg family income supplement, rent and rates rebates, and school grants.
    Ex: Some university libraries have been built up over the centuries; others have come into existence over the last 40 years.
    Ex: Necessity mothers invention, and certainly invention in the presentation of books mothers surprised interest.
    Ex: Derfer corroborated her: 'I'd be very proud of you if you could come up with the means to draft a model collection development policy'.
    * crear adicción = be addictive.
    * crear alianzas = form + alliances, make + alliances.
    * crear apoyo = build + support.
    * crear canales para = establish + channels for.
    * crear con gran destreza = craft.
    * crear consenso = forge + consensus.
    * crear demanda = make + demand.
    * crear de nuevo = recreate [re-create].
    * crear desconfianza = create + distrust.
    * crear desesperación = yield + despair.
    * crear falsas ilusiones = create + false illusions.
    * crear interés = build + interest.
    * crear la ilusión = generate + illusion.
    * crear lazos = build up + links.
    * crear lazos afectivos = bond.
    * crear posibilidades = open + window, create + possibilities.
    * crear problemas = make + waves, build up + problems, make + trouble.
    * crear prototipos = prototype.
    * crear relaciones = structure + relationships.
    * crearse = build up, hew.
    * crearse el prestigio de ser = establish + a record as.
    * crear servidor web = put up + web site.
    * crearse una identidad = forge + identity.
    * crearse una vida = build + life.
    * crear una alianza = forge + alliance.
    * crear una base = form + a basis.
    * crear una buena impresión en = make + a good impression on.
    * crear una coalición = forge + coalition.
    * crear una colección = build + collection.
    * crear un acuerdo = work out + agreement.
    * crear una familia = have + a family.
    * crear una ilusión = create + illusion.
    * crear una imagen = build + an image, create + image, summon up + image.
    * crear una injusticia = create + injustice.
    * crear una marca de identidad = branding.
    * crear una ocasión = create + opportunity.
    * crear una preocupación = create + concern.
    * crear una situación = create + a situation.
    * crear un clima = promote + climate.
    * crear un comité = set up + committee.
    * crear un entorno = create + an environment.
    * crear un equilibrio = establish + a balance.
    * crear un fondo común de conocimientos = pool + knowledge.
    * crear un fondo común de experiencias profesionales = pool + expertise.
    * crear un grupo = set up + group.
    * crear un índice = generate + index.
    * crear un mercado para = produce + a market for.
    * crear un perfil = compile + profile, formulate + profile.
    * crear un servidor web = open up + web site.
    * crear vínculos = build up + links.
    * crear vínculos afectivos = bond.
    * oposición + crear = opposition + line up.
    * que crea adicción = addictive.
    * que crea hábito = addictive.
    * volver a crear = recreate [re-create].

    * * *
    crear [A1 ]
    vt
    A
    1 ‹obra/modelo› to create; ‹tendencia› to create
    crear una nueva imagen para el producto to create a new image for the product
    crearon un producto revolucionario they developed o created a revolutionary product
    2 ‹sistema› to create, establish, set up; ‹institución› to set up, create; ‹comisión/fondo› to set up; ‹empleo› to create
    crearon una ciudad en pleno desierto they built a city in the middle of the desert
    B ‹dificultades/problemas› to cause, create; ‹ambiente/clima› to create; ‹fama/prestigio› to bring; ‹reputación› to earn
    su arrogancia le creó muchas enemistades his arrogance made him many enemies
    no quiero crear falsas expectativas en mis alumnos I don't want to raise false hopes among my students, I don't want to give my students false hopes
    se crea muchas dificultades he creates o makes a lot of problems for himself
    ¿para qué te creas más trabajo? why make more work for yourself?
    será difícil llenar el vacío creado con su desaparición it will be difficult to fill the gap left by his death
    * * *

     

    crear ( conjugate crear) verbo transitivo
    to create;
    ‹ producto› to develop;
    ‹institución/comisión/fondo› to set up;
    ‹fama/prestigio› to bring;
    ‹ reputación› to earn;
    ◊ crea muchos problemas it causes o creates a lot of problems;

    no quiero crear falsas expectativas I don't want to raise false hopes
    crearse verbo pronominal ‹ problema› to create … for oneself;

    ‹ enemigos› to make
    crear verbo transitivo to create
    ' crear' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    falsificar
    - hacer
    - ilusionar
    - infundio
    - rompecabezas
    - constituir
    - formar
    - meter
    English:
    boat
    - bonding
    - create
    - fashion
    - never-never land
    - rapport
    - stage
    - afoot
    - develop
    - devise
    - disrupt
    - establish
    - illusion
    - set
    - you
    * * *
    ♦ vt
    1. [hacer, producir, originar] to create;
    crear empleo/riqueza to create jobs/wealth;
    han creado un nuevo ministerio para él they have created a new ministry for him;
    me crea muchos problemas it gives me a lot of trouble, it causes me a lot of problems;
    Picasso creó escuela Picasso's works have had a seminal influence
    2. [inventar] to invent;
    [poema, sinfonía] to compose, to write; [cuadro] to paint
    3. [fundar] to found
    * * *
    v/t create; empresa set up
    * * *
    crear vt
    1) : to create, to cause
    2) : to originate
    * * *
    crear vb
    1. (en general) to create
    2. (comité, empresa, etc) to set up

    Spanish-English dictionary > crear

  • 2 imprenta

    f.
    1 (printing) press.
    2 printing house (establecimiento).
    3 printing press, press.
    4 printing works.
    pres.indicat.
    3rd person singular (él/ella/ello) present indicative of spanish verb: imprentar.
    * * *
    1 (arte) printing
    2 (taller) printer's, printing house
    * * *
    SF
    1) (=acto) printing

    dar o entregar a la imprenta — to send for printing

    2) (=máquina) press
    3) (=taller) printer's
    4) (=impresos) printed matter
    letra 1)
    * * *
    femenino ( taller) printer's; ( aparato) (printing) press; ( actividad) printing
    * * *
    = book house, printing house, printing office, printing press, press [presses, -pl.], establishment, printing machine, printing company, printing firm, print shop.
    Ex. Although most London book houses owned galley presses for making slip proofs by the 1870, it appears that companionship bookwork was generally made up into pages and imposed before proofing until the mid 1880s.
    Ex. Companionship systems were operated in the Boston printing house of Hobart and Robins in the early 1850s.
    Ex. Companionships had probably been developed in late eighteenth-century London for dealing with rush jobs in the larger printing offices.
    Ex. The place of printing is the location where the printing press is situated, of failing this, the organization acting for it.
    Ex. Several of the commercial and university publishers that had been prominent in 1983 have been replaced by new presses.
    Ex. Certainly the larger establishments of the early machine-press period, which produced comparable numbers of damp sheets, found it necessary to install heated drying rooms.
    Ex. The author list reprographic equipment suitable for use in libraries (copiers, cutting equipment, printing machines, collators, driers).
    Ex. The first formally organized photomechanical printing company in the world was created by Paul Pretsch in 1854 in England.
    Ex. These archives are so complete that they present a rare insight into the early history of a printing firm which under 4 generations of owners produced work for 127 years.
    Ex. The only feminist print shop in North America has closed down after 23 years.
    ----
    * al principio de la imprenta = early printing.
    * cajista de imprenta = compositor, typesetter.
    * carácter de imprenta = block capital, block letter.
    * era de la imprenta, la = print era, the.
    * GPO (Imprenta del Gobierno Americano) = GPO (Government Printing Office).
    * historia de la imprenta = history of printing.
    * imprenta de galeradas = galley press.
    * imprenta de material efímero = jobbing house, jobbing office, jobbing printer.
    * imprenta de periódico = news press.
    * imprenta especializada en remendería = jobbing house.
    * imprenta pequeña = small press.
    * imprenta privada = private press.
    * industria de la imprenta, la = printing industry, the.
    * letra de imprenta = block capital, block letter.
    * máquina de imprenta = printing machine.
    * metal de imprenta = type-metal [typemetal].
    * oficial aprendiz de imprenta = journeyman printer.
    * papel de imprenta = printing paper, copy paper.
    * pie de imprenta = edition imprint, imprint statement, imprint.
    * taller de imprenta = printing house, printing firm, printing company, print shop.
    * tinta de imprenta = printing ink.
    * tipo de imprenta = book face, printing type, type.
    * * *
    femenino ( taller) printer's; ( aparato) (printing) press; ( actividad) printing
    * * *
    = book house, printing house, printing office, printing press, press [presses, -pl.], establishment, printing machine, printing company, printing firm, print shop.

    Ex: Although most London book houses owned galley presses for making slip proofs by the 1870, it appears that companionship bookwork was generally made up into pages and imposed before proofing until the mid 1880s.

    Ex: Companionship systems were operated in the Boston printing house of Hobart and Robins in the early 1850s.
    Ex: Companionships had probably been developed in late eighteenth-century London for dealing with rush jobs in the larger printing offices.
    Ex: The place of printing is the location where the printing press is situated, of failing this, the organization acting for it.
    Ex: Several of the commercial and university publishers that had been prominent in 1983 have been replaced by new presses.
    Ex: Certainly the larger establishments of the early machine-press period, which produced comparable numbers of damp sheets, found it necessary to install heated drying rooms.
    Ex: The author list reprographic equipment suitable for use in libraries (copiers, cutting equipment, printing machines, collators, driers).
    Ex: The first formally organized photomechanical printing company in the world was created by Paul Pretsch in 1854 in England.
    Ex: These archives are so complete that they present a rare insight into the early history of a printing firm which under 4 generations of owners produced work for 127 years.
    Ex: The only feminist print shop in North America has closed down after 23 years.
    * al principio de la imprenta = early printing.
    * cajista de imprenta = compositor, typesetter.
    * carácter de imprenta = block capital, block letter.
    * era de la imprenta, la = print era, the.
    * GPO (Imprenta del Gobierno Americano) = GPO (Government Printing Office).
    * historia de la imprenta = history of printing.
    * imprenta de galeradas = galley press.
    * imprenta de material efímero = jobbing house, jobbing office, jobbing printer.
    * imprenta de periódico = news press.
    * imprenta especializada en remendería = jobbing house.
    * imprenta pequeña = small press.
    * imprenta privada = private press.
    * industria de la imprenta, la = printing industry, the.
    * letra de imprenta = block capital, block letter.
    * máquina de imprenta = printing machine.
    * metal de imprenta = type-metal [typemetal].
    * oficial aprendiz de imprenta = journeyman printer.
    * papel de imprenta = printing paper, copy paper.
    * pie de imprenta = edition imprint, imprint statement, imprint.
    * taller de imprenta = printing house, printing firm, printing company, print shop.
    * tinta de imprenta = printing ink.
    * tipo de imprenta = book face, printing type, type.

    * * *
    1 (taller) printer's
    2 (aparato) printing press, press
    3 (actividad) printing letra
    * * *

     

    imprenta sustantivo femenino ( taller) printer's;
    ( aparato) (printing) press
    imprenta sustantivo femenino
    1 (taller) printing works
    2 (máquina) printing press
    3 (técnica) printing
    ' imprenta' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    error
    - original
    - pliego
    - prensa
    - errata
    - letra
    English:
    misprint
    - press
    - print
    - printing
    - block
    - printer
    - proof
    - type
    * * *
    1. [máquina] (printing) press
    2. [establecimiento] printing house, printer's
    * * *
    f
    1 taller printer’s
    2 arte, técnica printing
    3 máquina printing press;
    dar a la imprenta send for printing
    * * *
    1) : printing
    2) : printing shop, press
    * * *
    1. (arte) printing
    2. (taller) printer's

    Spanish-English dictionary > imprenta

  • 3 gráficas

    f.pl.
    graphics.
    * * *
    = printing press, printing company, printing firm, printing house.
    Ex. The place of printing is the location where the printing press is situated, of failing this, the organization acting for it.
    Ex. The first formally organized photomechanical printing company in the world was created by Paul Pretsch in 1854 in England.
    Ex. These archives are so complete that they present a rare insight into the early history of a printing firm which under 4 generations of owners produced work for 127 years.
    Ex. Companionship systems were operated in the Boston printing house of Hobart and Robins in the early 1850s.
    * * *
    = printing press, printing company, printing firm, printing house.

    Ex: The place of printing is the location where the printing press is situated, of failing this, the organization acting for it.

    Ex: The first formally organized photomechanical printing company in the world was created by Paul Pretsch in 1854 in England.
    Ex: These archives are so complete that they present a rare insight into the early history of a printing firm which under 4 generations of owners produced work for 127 years.
    Ex: Companionship systems were operated in the Boston printing house of Hobart and Robins in the early 1850s.

    Spanish-English dictionary > gráficas

  • 4 taller gráfico

    (n.) = printing company, printing press, printing firm, printing house
    Ex. The first formally organized photomechanical printing company in the world was created by Paul Pretsch in 1854 in England.
    Ex. The place of printing is the location where the printing press is situated, of failing this, the organization acting for it.
    Ex. These archives are so complete that they present a rare insight into the early history of a printing firm which under 4 generations of owners produced work for 127 years.
    Ex. Companionship systems were operated in the Boston printing house of Hobart and Robins in the early 1850s.
    * * *
    (n.) = printing company, printing press, printing firm, printing house

    Ex: The first formally organized photomechanical printing company in the world was created by Paul Pretsch in 1854 in England.

    Ex: The place of printing is the location where the printing press is situated, of failing this, the organization acting for it.
    Ex: These archives are so complete that they present a rare insight into the early history of a printing firm which under 4 generations of owners produced work for 127 years.
    Ex: Companionship systems were operated in the Boston printing house of Hobart and Robins in the early 1850s.

    Spanish-English dictionary > taller gráfico

  • 5 origen

    m.
    1 origin (principio).
    en su origen originally
    dar origen a to give rise to
    tener su origen en to have one's origins in, to originate in (lugar)
    2 origins, birth (ascendencia).
    los aceites de origen español oils of Spanish origin, Spanish oils
    Alicia es colombiana de origen Alicia is Colombian by birth
    de origen humilde of humble origin
    3 cause (causa).
    el origen del problema the cause o source of the problem
    * * *
    1 (causa) cause, origin
    2 (procedencia - gen) origin; (- de persona) extraction
    \
    dar origen a to give rise to
    en su origen originally
    tener su origen en to originate in
    idioma de origen source language
    país de origen country of origin
    * * *
    noun m.
    •
    * * *
    SM
    1) (=causa, principio) origin

    • dar origen a — [+ rumores, movimiento, organización] to give rise to

    el Big Bang, la gran explosión que dio origen al Universo — the Big Bang, the great explosion that created the Universe

    • de origen, proteínas de origen animal/vegetal — animal/vegetable proteins

    problemas de origen psicológico — psychological problems, problems of psychological origin

    un deporte de origen inglés — a sport of English origin, a sport originally from England

    • desde sus orígenes — [de movimiento, corriente] from its origins; [de ciudad, país] from the very beginning, right from the start

    • en su origen — originally

    en su origen la organización no tenía más de veinte miembros — at the outset o at the start o originally the organization had no more than twenty members

    • tener su origen en — [+ lugar] to originate in; [+ inicio] to originate from; [+ fecha] to date back to

    el vals tiene su origen en las danzas austriacas "Ländler" — the waltz originates o comes from Austrian "Ländler" dances

    2) [de persona] background, origins pl

    son gente de origen humilde — they are from a humble background, they are of humble origins

    • de origen argentino/árabe — of Argentinian/Arab origin o más frm extraction

    • país de origen — country of origin, native country

    3)

    • en origen — (Com, Econ) at source

    * * *
    a) ( principio) origin; (de palabra, tradición) origin

    en su origen — originally, in the beginning

    aquel comentario dio origen a... — that remark gave rise to o caused...

    b) ( procedencia) origin
    c) (Mat) origin
    * * *
    = genesis, lineage, origin, parent, pedigree, root, source, provenance, strain, root cause.
    Ex. The genesis of this brave new world of solid state logic, in which bibliographic data are reduced to phantasmagoria on the faces of cathode-ray tubes (CRT), extends at most only three-quarters of a decade into the dim past.
    Ex. The lineage of PRECIS indexing: PRECIS indexing has roots in faceted classification.
    Ex. These rules have their origins in a report by the American Library Association.
    Ex. Most bibliographic databases evolved from a parent abstracting or indexing publication.
    Ex. The term 'false drops' which is encountered in other aspects of information retrieval can trace its pedigree to edge notch cards.
    Ex. However, many indexing systems have evolved over the last century, and have their roots in a time when detailed specification of subjects was unnecessary.
    Ex. The network is fairly well developed and lobbying initiatives on policies affecting all or a group of local authorities have stemmed from this source.
    Ex. This article redefines the archival principle of provenance as the entire history of an item's origin, its use and custody.
    Ex. The dynamism of a continent-wide free society drawn from many strains depended on more people having access to more knowledge to be used in more ways = El dinamismo de una sociedad continental libre compuesta de muchas razas dependía de que un mayor número de personas tuviera acceso a un mayor conocimiento para que se utilizara de más formas diferentes.
    Ex. This article highlights the root causes of nativism against both immigrants and U.S. immigration policy arising from increasing legal and illegal immigration.
    ----
    * álbum de orígenes = studbook.
    * americano de origen asiático = Asian American.
    * americano de origen mejicano = Mexican American.
    * artículo origen = parent article.
    * atribuir su origen a = trace to, trace back to.
    * buscar el origen de = trace + the origin of.
    * buscar el origen de la relación entre = trace + the relationship between.
    * cuyo origen es determinable = retraceable, traceable.
    * cuyo origen es ilocalizable = irretraceable.
    * cuyo origen es localizable = traceable, retraceable.
    * cuyo origen is indeterminable = irretraceable.
    * dar origen = mother.
    * dar origen a = give + rise to, bring about, lead to, give + cause to, give + occasion to.
    * de origen + Adjetivo = Adjetivo + in origin.
    * de origen determinable = retraceable, traceable.
    * de origen humilde = of low descent.
    * de origen ilocalizable = irretraceable.
    * de origen indeterminable = irretraceable.
    * de origen localizable = traceable, retraceable.
    * desde su origen = from + its/their + inception, since + its/their + inception.
    * el dinero es el origen de todos los males = money is the root of all evil.
    * en el origen (de) = in the early days (of).
    * en sus orígenes = originally.
    * establecer el origen de = trace + the origin of.
    * libro de orígenes = studbook.
    * los orígenes de = the dawn of.
    * lugar de origen = locality of origin.
    * nacionalidad de origen = nationality of origin.
    * Origen de las Especies, el = Origin of Species, the.
    * origen de todos males, el = root of all evil, the.
    * orígenes = ascendancy.
    * orígenes + encontrarse = origins + lie.
    * origen étnico = ethnic origin, ethnicity, ethnic background.
    * origen geográfico = geographical origin.
    * origen geológico = geological origin.
    * origen nacional = national origin.
    * origen + remontarse a = trace + ascendancy.
    * país de origen = country of origin, national origin, home country.
    * ser de origen + Adjetivo = be + Adjetivo + in origin.
    * ser el origen de = provide + the material for.
    * tener su origen = hark(en) back to, hearken back to.
    * tener su origen en = trace to, trace back to, have + Posesivo + roots in.
    * tener sus orígenes = be rooted in.
    * término de origen = referred-from term.
    * vender en el extranjero a precios inferiores que en el país de origen = dump.
    * * *
    a) ( principio) origin; (de palabra, tradición) origin

    en su origen — originally, in the beginning

    aquel comentario dio origen a... — that remark gave rise to o caused...

    b) ( procedencia) origin
    c) (Mat) origin
    * * *
    = genesis, lineage, origin, parent, pedigree, root, source, provenance, strain, root cause.

    Ex: The genesis of this brave new world of solid state logic, in which bibliographic data are reduced to phantasmagoria on the faces of cathode-ray tubes (CRT), extends at most only three-quarters of a decade into the dim past.

    Ex: The lineage of PRECIS indexing: PRECIS indexing has roots in faceted classification.
    Ex: These rules have their origins in a report by the American Library Association.
    Ex: Most bibliographic databases evolved from a parent abstracting or indexing publication.
    Ex: The term 'false drops' which is encountered in other aspects of information retrieval can trace its pedigree to edge notch cards.
    Ex: However, many indexing systems have evolved over the last century, and have their roots in a time when detailed specification of subjects was unnecessary.
    Ex: The network is fairly well developed and lobbying initiatives on policies affecting all or a group of local authorities have stemmed from this source.
    Ex: This article redefines the archival principle of provenance as the entire history of an item's origin, its use and custody.
    Ex: The dynamism of a continent-wide free society drawn from many strains depended on more people having access to more knowledge to be used in more ways = El dinamismo de una sociedad continental libre compuesta de muchas razas dependía de que un mayor número de personas tuviera acceso a un mayor conocimiento para que se utilizara de más formas diferentes.
    Ex: This article highlights the root causes of nativism against both immigrants and U.S. immigration policy arising from increasing legal and illegal immigration.
    * álbum de orígenes = studbook.
    * americano de origen asiático = Asian American.
    * americano de origen mejicano = Mexican American.
    * artículo origen = parent article.
    * atribuir su origen a = trace to, trace back to.
    * buscar el origen de = trace + the origin of.
    * buscar el origen de la relación entre = trace + the relationship between.
    * cuyo origen es determinable = retraceable, traceable.
    * cuyo origen es ilocalizable = irretraceable.
    * cuyo origen es localizable = traceable, retraceable.
    * cuyo origen is indeterminable = irretraceable.
    * dar origen = mother.
    * dar origen a = give + rise to, bring about, lead to, give + cause to, give + occasion to.
    * de origen + Adjetivo = Adjetivo + in origin.
    * de origen determinable = retraceable, traceable.
    * de origen humilde = of low descent.
    * de origen ilocalizable = irretraceable.
    * de origen indeterminable = irretraceable.
    * de origen localizable = traceable, retraceable.
    * desde su origen = from + its/their + inception, since + its/their + inception.
    * el dinero es el origen de todos los males = money is the root of all evil.
    * en el origen (de) = in the early days (of).
    * en sus orígenes = originally.
    * establecer el origen de = trace + the origin of.
    * libro de orígenes = studbook.
    * los orígenes de = the dawn of.
    * lugar de origen = locality of origin.
    * nacionalidad de origen = nationality of origin.
    * Origen de las Especies, el = Origin of Species, the.
    * origen de todos males, el = root of all evil, the.
    * orígenes = ascendancy.
    * orígenes + encontrarse = origins + lie.
    * origen étnico = ethnic origin, ethnicity, ethnic background.
    * origen geográfico = geographical origin.
    * origen geológico = geological origin.
    * origen nacional = national origin.
    * origen + remontarse a = trace + ascendancy.
    * país de origen = country of origin, national origin, home country.
    * ser de origen + Adjetivo = be + Adjetivo + in origin.
    * ser el origen de = provide + the material for.
    * tener su origen = hark(en) back to, hearken back to.
    * tener su origen en = trace to, trace back to, have + Posesivo + roots in.
    * tener sus orígenes = be rooted in.
    * término de origen = referred-from term.
    * vender en el extranjero a precios inferiores que en el país de origen = dump.

    * * *
    1 (del universo, de la vida) origin; (de una palabra, una tradición) origin
    esta costumbre tiene su origen en un antiguo rito pagano this custom has its origin in an ancient pagan rite, this custom derives from an ancient pagan rite
    la cocina vasca desde sus orígenes hasta la actualidad Basque cuisine from its origins to the present day
    el Tratado de Versalles dio origen a la OIT the ILO came into being o was brought into being by the Treaty of Versailles
    aquel comentario dio origen a un gran escándalo that remark gave rise to o caused a great scandal
    los orígenes de la guerra the origins o causes of the war
    2 (de un producto — establecimiento) point of origin; (— país) country of origin
    embotellado en origen estate-bottled
    es español de origen he is Spanish by birth
    de origen holandés of Dutch origin o extraction
    de origen humilde of humble origin(s)
    mejillones envasados en origen mussels canned at point of origin
    3 ( Mat) origin
    * * *

     

    origen sustantivo masculino
    origin;

    dar origen a algo to give rise to sth;
    país de origen country of origin;
    de origen humilde of humble origin(s)
    origen sustantivo masculino
    1 (comienzo) origin: dio una charla sobre el origen del universo, he gave a talk on the origin of the universe
    2 (causa) cause: el origen de su tristeza es la muerte de su amigo, his sadness is due to his friend's death
    3 (ascendencia, procedencia) origin: su madre es inglesa de origen, her mother is English by birth
    ♦ Locuciones: dar origen a, to give rise to: su actitud dio origen a un malentendido, his attitude gave rise to a misunderstanding
    denominación de origen, guarantee of origin and quality

    ' origen' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    denominación
    - derivarse
    - doblete
    - emanar
    - ser
    - extracción
    - fuente
    - germen
    - hipótesis
    - madre
    - milenaria
    - milenario
    - nacimiento
    - principio
    - semilla
    - tierra
    - ascendencia
    - de
    - país
    - procedencia
    English:
    background
    - be
    - beginning
    - birth
    - date
    - descent
    - ethnicity
    - fountainhead
    - from
    - get at
    - home
    - homeland
    - origin
    - originate
    - out of
    - provenance
    - root
    - source
    - speculate
    - start out
    - trace back
    - African-American
    - derive
    - rise
    * * *
    origen nm
    1. [principio] origin;
    en su origen originally;
    dar origen a to give rise to;
    sus palabras han dado origen a especulaciones her statements have given rise to o caused speculation;
    esta idea dio origen a la actual empresa this idea was the origin of the company as it is today;
    desde sus orígenes from its origins;
    tener su origen en [lugar] to have one's origins in, to originate in;
    esta leyenda tiene su origen en un hecho histórico this legend has its origins in historical fact;
    tiene su origen en el siglo XIX it originated in the 19th century
    2. [ascendencia] origins, birth;
    Alicia es colombiana de origen Alicia is Colombian by birth;
    de origen humilde of humble origin
    3. [causa] cause;
    el origen del problema the cause o source of the problem
    4. [de un producto] origin;
    agua mineral envasada en origen mineral water bottled at source
    5. Mat origin
    * * *
    m origin;
    ser de origen … be of … origin o extraction;
    tener su origen en have its origin in;
    dar origen a give rise to
    * * *
    1) : origin
    2) : lineage, birth
    3)
    dar origen a : to give rise to
    4)
    en su origen : originally
    * * *
    1. (en general) origin
    2. (causa) cause

    Spanish-English dictionary > origen

  • 6 ordinary ambassador

    гос. упр. постоянный посол
    Syn:
    "
    похоже не синонимы! Просто тот, который не ""чрезвычайный посол""
    "
    !
    An ordinary ambassador is charged with the duties of heading a permanent diplomatic mission and maintaining relations between his home and his host country and to conduct relations on an equal basis with other nations. An Extraordinary Ambassador is appointed to head some particular mission for a particular purpose and such postings are for an indefinite period lasting till the completion of the mission. Such appointments are generally politically initiated.
    A resident ambassador resides within the political boundaries of the country to which he/she is posted while a non-resident ambassador does not live within the country of his/her posting but lives in a neighboring country. Therefore, a resident ambassador of US in India may at the same time be a non-resident ambassador of other countries of the sub-continent. Ambassadors are deemed representatives of their heads of state to the heads of state of their place of posting and not representative of one state government to another state government. This is a practice that has persisted ever since the ambassadorial post was created. Only high commissioners (since once they shared their heads of state) are deemed to represent their governments.
    It may sometimes transpire that the post of ambassador is handed out to a person as a matter of routine transfer or promotion within the country in the ministry of foreign affairs as furtherance to their careers.
    "
    An ambassador, rarely embassador, is a diplomatic official accredited to a foreign sovereign or government, or to an international organization, to serve as the official representative of his or her own country. In everyday usage it applies to the ranking plenipotentiary minister stationed in a foreign capital. The host country typically allows the ambassador control of specific territory called an embassy, whose territory, staff, and even vehicles are generally afforded diplomatic immunity from most laws of the host country. The senior diplomatic officers among members of the Commonwealth of Nations are known as High Commissioners, who are the heads of High Commissions. Representatives of the Holy See are known as Papal or Apostolic Nuncios, while the head of a Libyan People's Bureau is a Secretary. Historically, officials representing their countries abroad were termed ministers, but this term was also applied to diplomats of the second rank. The Congress of Vienna of 1815 formalized the system of diplomatic rank under international law: Ambassadors are ministers of the highest rank, with plenipotentiary authority to represent their head of state. An Ordinary Ambassador is one heading a permanent diplomatic mission, for instance the senior professional diplomat in an embassy. An Extraordinary Ambassador could be appointed for special purposes or for an indefinite term; politically appointed ambassadors would fall under this category. Moreover, a Resident Ambassador is one who resides within the country to which s/he is accredited. A Non-Resident Ambassador is one who does not reside within the country to which s/he is accredited, but lives in a nearby country. Thus a resident ambassador to a country might at the same time also be a non-resident ambassador to several other countries.
    "

    Англо-русский экономический словарь > ordinary ambassador

  • 7 resident ambassador

    гос. упр. = ordinary ambassador !
    An ordinary ambassador is charged with the duties of heading a permanent diplomatic mission and maintaining relations between his home and his host country and to conduct relations on an equal basis with other nations. An Extraordinary Ambassador is appointed to head some particular mission for a particular purpose and such postings are for an indefinite period lasting till the completion of the mission. Such appointments are generally politically initiated.
    A resident ambassador resides within the political boundaries of the country to which he/she is posted while a non-resident ambassador does not live within the country of his/her posting but lives in a neighboring country. Therefore, a resident ambassador of US in India may at the same time be a non-resident ambassador of other countries of the sub-continent. Ambassadors are deemed representatives of their heads of state to the heads of state of their place of posting and not representative of one state government to another state government. This is a practice that has persisted ever since the ambassadorial post was created. Only high commissioners (since once they shared their heads of state) are deemed to represent their governments.
    It may sometimes transpire that the post of ambassador is handed out to a person as a matter of routine transfer or promotion within the country in the ministry of foreign affairs as furtherance to their careers.
    "
    An ambassador, rarely embassador, is a diplomatic official accredited to a foreign sovereign or government, or to an international organization, to serve as the official representative of his or her own country. In everyday usage it applies to the ranking plenipotentiary minister stationed in a foreign capital. The host country typically allows the ambassador control of specific territory called an embassy, whose territory, staff, and even vehicles are generally afforded diplomatic immunity from most laws of the host country. The senior diplomatic officers among members of the Commonwealth of Nations are known as High Commissioners, who are the heads of High Commissions. Representatives of the Holy See are known as Papal or Apostolic Nuncios, while the head of a Libyan People's Bureau is a Secretary. Historically, officials representing their countries abroad were termed ministers, but this term was also applied to diplomats of the second rank. The Congress of Vienna of 1815 formalized the system of diplomatic rank under international law: Ambassadors are ministers of the highest rank, with plenipotentiary authority to represent their head of state. An Ordinary Ambassador is one heading a permanent diplomatic mission, for instance the senior professional diplomat in an embassy. An Extraordinary Ambassador could be appointed for special purposes or for an indefinite term; politically appointed ambassadors would fall under this category. Moreover, a Resident Ambassador is one who resides within the country to which s/he is accredited. A Non-Resident Ambassador is one who does not reside within the country to which s/he is accredited, but lives in a nearby country. Thus a resident ambassador to a country might at the same time also be a non-resident ambassador to several other countries.
    "

    Англо-русский экономический словарь > resident ambassador

  • 8 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 9 salvaje

    adj.
    1 wild (animal, terreno).
    el salvaje oeste the wild West
    2 savage (pueblo, tribu).
    3 brutal, savage (cruel, brutal).
    f. & m.
    1 savage (primitivo).
    2 brute (bruto).
    unos salvajes prendieron fuego a un inmigrante some inhuman brutes set fire to an immigrant
    * * *
    1 (planta) wild; (terreno) uncultivated
    2 (animal) wild
    3 (pueblo, tribu) savage, uncivilized
    5 (bruto) uncouth, boorish
    6 figurado (incontrolado) haphazard, uncontrolled
    3 (bruto) brute, boor
    * * *
    1. noun mf. 2. adj.
    2) wild
    * * *
    1. ADJ
    1) [planta, animal, tierra] wild
    2) (=no autorizado) [huelga] unofficial, wildcat; [construcción] unauthorized
    3) [pueblo, tribu] savage
    4) (=brutal) savage, brutal

    un salvaje asesinato — a brutal o savage murder

    5) LAm * (=estupendo) terrific *, smashing *
    2.
    SMF (lit, fig) savage
    * * *
    I
    1)
    a) < animal> wild
    b) ( primitivo) < tribu> savage
    c) <vegetación/terreno> wild
    2) ( cruel) <persona/tortura> brutal; <ataque/matanza> savage
    II
    masculino y femenino ( primitivo) savage; ( bruto) (pey) animal, savage
    * * *
    = uncivilised [uncivilized, -USA], savage, wild [wilder -comp., wildest -sup.], swingeing, savage, barbarian, barbarian, in the wild, feral, brutish.
    Ex. It was on the tip of his tongue to say: 'Must you speak to me in this uncivilized fashion?' But he discreetly forbore.
    Ex. The most vulnerable nations are Burma, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam, which have all experienced savage war and civil unrest in recent years.
    Ex. The letter sent Tomas Hernandez into a frenzy of conflicting reactions: ecstatic jubilation and ego-tripping, wild speculation and outrageous fantasy, compounded by confusion and indirection.
    Ex. Faced with the prospect of a swingeing cut of 15% in the periodical budget, the library had to determine which titles could be cancelled with least damage to the integrity of the research collections.
    Ex. The father is ultimately a figure of fun and the archetype of an irrational savage.
    Ex. The article is entitled 'Waiting for the barbarians? Multicultural public library services in Australia 1985-1992'.
    Ex. The writer examines the hierarchy and organization of barbarian churches that developed in the western Roman Empire in late antiquity.
    Ex. I spoke of capturing e-scholarship disseminated outside the library, or, as one librarian put it, ' in the wild'.
    Ex. The film offers a repulsive creature whose croaks and drools recall the demonic child in The Exorcist, instead of the feral but relatively articulate person that Morrison created.
    Ex. In his most famous work, the Leviathan, Hobbes famously argued that life in the state of nature is 'solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short'.
    ----
    * crecer salvaje = grow + rampant.
    * flor salvaje = wildflower [wild flower].
    * gato salvaje = feral cat.
    * monte salvaje = backcountry.
    * regiones salvajes de Africa, las = wilds of Africa, the.
    * vida salvaje = wildlife.
    * zonas salvajes del interior = back country.
    * * *
    I
    1)
    a) < animal> wild
    b) ( primitivo) < tribu> savage
    c) <vegetación/terreno> wild
    2) ( cruel) <persona/tortura> brutal; <ataque/matanza> savage
    II
    masculino y femenino ( primitivo) savage; ( bruto) (pey) animal, savage
    * * *
    = uncivilised [uncivilized, -USA], savage, wild [wilder -comp., wildest -sup.], swingeing, savage, barbarian, barbarian, in the wild, feral, brutish.

    Ex: It was on the tip of his tongue to say: 'Must you speak to me in this uncivilized fashion?' But he discreetly forbore.

    Ex: The most vulnerable nations are Burma, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam, which have all experienced savage war and civil unrest in recent years.
    Ex: The letter sent Tomas Hernandez into a frenzy of conflicting reactions: ecstatic jubilation and ego-tripping, wild speculation and outrageous fantasy, compounded by confusion and indirection.
    Ex: Faced with the prospect of a swingeing cut of 15% in the periodical budget, the library had to determine which titles could be cancelled with least damage to the integrity of the research collections.
    Ex: The father is ultimately a figure of fun and the archetype of an irrational savage.
    Ex: The article is entitled 'Waiting for the barbarians? Multicultural public library services in Australia 1985-1992'.
    Ex: The writer examines the hierarchy and organization of barbarian churches that developed in the western Roman Empire in late antiquity.
    Ex: I spoke of capturing e-scholarship disseminated outside the library, or, as one librarian put it, ' in the wild'.
    Ex: The film offers a repulsive creature whose croaks and drools recall the demonic child in The Exorcist, instead of the feral but relatively articulate person that Morrison created.
    Ex: In his most famous work, the Leviathan, Hobbes famously argued that life in the state of nature is 'solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short'.
    * crecer salvaje = grow + rampant.
    * flor salvaje = wildflower [wild flower].
    * gato salvaje = feral cat.
    * monte salvaje = backcountry.
    * regiones salvajes de Africa, las = wilds of Africa, the.
    * vida salvaje = wildlife.
    * zonas salvajes del interior = back country.

    * * *
    A
    1 ‹animal› wild
    2 (primitivo) ‹tribu› savage
    3 ‹vegetación/terreno› wild
    B (cruel) ‹persona/tortura› brutal; ‹ataque/matanza› savage
    hay que ser salvaje para decirle eso a una pobre anciana ( fam); you have to be pretty cruel o brutal o nasty to say a thing like that to an old lady ( colloq)
    se vuelve muy salvaje cuando está borracho he gets very vicious o brutal when he's drunk
    C ‹construcción› uncontrolled, illegal; ‹camping› unauthorized
    para controlar la colocación salvaje de carteles to control illegal o unauthorized bill posting
    1 (primitivo) savage
    2 ( pey) (bruto) animal, savage
    te comportaste como un salvaje you behaved like a savage o an animal
    * * *

     

    salvaje adjetivo
    1
    a) ‹ animal› wild

    b) ( primitivo) ‹ tribu› savage

    c) ‹vegetación/terreno› wild

    2 ( cruel) ‹persona/tortura› brutal;
    ‹ataque/matanza› savage
    ■ sustantivo masculino y femenino ( primitivo) savage;
    ( bruto) (pey) animal, savage
    salvaje
    I adjetivo
    1 Bot Zool wild: el tigre es un animal salvaje, the tiger is a wild animal
    2 (terreno) uncultivated
    3 (cultura, tribu) savage
    4 (comportamiento) cruel, brutal
    5 (incontrolable, imparable) huelga salvaje, protracted strike
    6 pey (inculto, maleducado) uncouth
    (zoquete) thick: no seas salvaje, claro que fue Colón, don't be so thick, of course it was Columbus
    II m, f
    1savage
    2 fam (bruto) animal, savage
    ' salvaje' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    brava
    - bravo
    - lado
    - selvática
    - selvático
    - bestia
    - indomable
    English:
    abundance
    - frazzled
    - loose
    - rice
    - savage
    - savagely
    - wild
    - wilderness
    - wildness
    - cut
    - vicious
    * * *
    ♦ adj
    1. [animal] wild
    2. [planta, terreno] wild
    3. [pueblo, tribu] savage
    4. [cruel, brutal] brutal, savage;
    se escuchó una explosión salvaje there was a massive explosion;
    el capitalismo salvaje ruthless capitalism
    5. [incontrolado]
    acampada salvaje unauthorized camping;
    una huelga salvaje an unofficial strike, a wildcat strike;
    vertidos salvajes illegal dumping
    ♦ nmf
    1. [primitivo] savage
    2. [bruto] brute;
    unos salvajes prendieron fuego a un inmigrante some inhuman brutes set fire to an immigrant;
    la salvaje de tu hermana ha suspendido todas las asignaturas your thick sister has failed every subject;
    es un salvaje, se comió un pollo él sólo he's an animal, he ate a whole chicken by himself;
    eres un salvaje, ¿cómo tratas así a tu madre? you're a monster, how can you treat your mother like that?
    * * *
    I adj
    1 animal wild
    2 ( bruto) brutal
    II m/f savage
    * * *
    salvaje adj
    1) : wild
    animales salvajes: wild animals
    2) : savage, cruel
    3) : primitive, uncivilized
    salvaje nmf
    : savage
    * * *
    salvaje adj
    1. (animal) wild
    2. (tribu) savage

    Spanish-English dictionary > salvaje

  • 10 defensor

    adj.
    defending.
    m.
    1 defender, supporter, advocate, champion.
    2 counsel for the defense, lawyer, defense lawyer, legist.
    * * *
    1 defending
    ► nombre masculino,nombre femenino
    1 defender
    2 DERECHO counsel for the defence (US defense)
    \
    * * *
    (f. - defensora)
    noun
    * * *
    defensor, -a
    1. SM / F
    1) (=protector) [de territorio, intereses] defender; [de causa, idea, derechos] defender, champion
    2) (Jur) defence lawyer, defense attorney o lawyer (EEUU)

    el defensor interrogó al testigo — counsel for the defence o defending counsel cross-examined the witness

    3) (Dep) [de título] defender
    2. ADJ
    1) (=protector)
    2) (Jur)

    abogado defensor — defence lawyer, defense attorney o lawyer (EEUU)

    * * *
    I
    - sora adjetivo
    a) < ejército> defending (before n)
    b) (Der) < abogado> defense* (before n)
    II
    - sora masculino, femenino
    a) (Mil) defender
    b) ( de una causa) champion
    c) (Der) defense counsel (AmE), defence lawyer (BrE)
    * * *
    = advocate, defendant, proponent, respondent, champion, defender, supporter, apologist, backer, crusader, freedom fighter, torchbearer [torch bearer], campaigner, standard-bearer.
    Ex. Sanford Berman has been an early, continuing, and outspoken advocate of user-oriented cataloging service.
    Ex. A respondent is a candidate for a degree who, in an academic disputation, defends or opposes a thesis proposed by the praeses (q.v.); also called the defendant.
    Ex. The proponents do provide for an author added entry to show what the library has by an author.
    Ex. A respondent is a candidate for a degree who, in an academic disputation, defends or opposes a thesis proposed by the praeses (q.v.); also called the defendant.
    Ex. NACs see their role as champions of the inarticulate by either taking up their case or providing groups with the information weaponry to campaign for their rights.
    Ex. It is very difficult to think of discreditable activities associated with books apart from the writing and selling of pornography and even that has its defenders.
    Ex. Then, a series of unfortunate circumstances (the outbreak of the war, family problems) deprived the project of its promoter and most passionate supporter.
    Ex. At the present time the misunderstandings that still persist, even among those who should know better, oblige any apologist of reference work to go out of his way to make clear what reference work is not.
    Ex. The author urges librarians and library backers to be more assertive in their requests for funding.
    Ex. This article reviews the work of Professor Kaula, the staunch crusader of librarianship in India.
    Ex. As a freedom fighter at the end of World War 2 he resisted Dutch efforts to regain control of their former colony.
    Ex. The mission of college libraries in India is to shoulder the responsibilities of a torch bearer.
    Ex. He was a tireless campaigner for high professional standards.
    Ex. He was a rebel and an anti-establishment standard-bearer of intellectualism and internationalism.
    ----
    * abogado defensor = defence attorney [defense attorney, -USA].
    * defensor de la ecología = eco-warrior.
    * defensor de la paz = peace activist.
    * defensor de la prohibición del aborto = pro-lifer.
    * defensor de la vida humana = pro-lifer.
    * defensor de los derechos de los animales = animal rights activist.
    * defensor de los derechos de los animales = animal rights campaigner.
    * defensor de los derechos de los ciudadanos = citizen activist.
    * defensor de los derechos humanos = human rights activist, human rights campaigner.
    * defensor de los intereses del ciudadano = watchdog.
    * defensor del pueblo = ombudsman [ombudsmen, -pl.].
    * defensor ecológico = eco-warrior.
    * defensor e impulsor = booster.
    * defensor incodicional = stalwart.
    * grupo defensor = interest group.
    * * *
    I
    - sora adjetivo
    a) < ejército> defending (before n)
    b) (Der) < abogado> defense* (before n)
    II
    - sora masculino, femenino
    a) (Mil) defender
    b) ( de una causa) champion
    c) (Der) defense counsel (AmE), defence lawyer (BrE)
    * * *
    = advocate, defendant, proponent, respondent, champion, defender, supporter, apologist, backer, crusader, freedom fighter, torchbearer [torch bearer], campaigner, standard-bearer.

    Ex: Sanford Berman has been an early, continuing, and outspoken advocate of user-oriented cataloging service.

    Ex: A respondent is a candidate for a degree who, in an academic disputation, defends or opposes a thesis proposed by the praeses (q.v.); also called the defendant.
    Ex: The proponents do provide for an author added entry to show what the library has by an author.
    Ex: A respondent is a candidate for a degree who, in an academic disputation, defends or opposes a thesis proposed by the praeses (q.v.); also called the defendant.
    Ex: NACs see their role as champions of the inarticulate by either taking up their case or providing groups with the information weaponry to campaign for their rights.
    Ex: It is very difficult to think of discreditable activities associated with books apart from the writing and selling of pornography and even that has its defenders.
    Ex: Then, a series of unfortunate circumstances (the outbreak of the war, family problems) deprived the project of its promoter and most passionate supporter.
    Ex: At the present time the misunderstandings that still persist, even among those who should know better, oblige any apologist of reference work to go out of his way to make clear what reference work is not.
    Ex: The author urges librarians and library backers to be more assertive in their requests for funding.
    Ex: This article reviews the work of Professor Kaula, the staunch crusader of librarianship in India.
    Ex: As a freedom fighter at the end of World War 2 he resisted Dutch efforts to regain control of their former colony.
    Ex: The mission of college libraries in India is to shoulder the responsibilities of a torch bearer.
    Ex: He was a tireless campaigner for high professional standards.
    Ex: He was a rebel and an anti-establishment standard-bearer of intellectualism and internationalism.
    * abogado defensor = defence attorney [defense attorney, -USA].
    * defensor de la ecología = eco-warrior.
    * defensor de la paz = peace activist.
    * defensor de la prohibición del aborto = pro-lifer.
    * defensor de la vida humana = pro-lifer.
    * defensor de los derechos de los animales = animal rights activist.
    * defensor de los derechos de los animales = animal rights campaigner.
    * defensor de los derechos de los ciudadanos = citizen activist.
    * defensor de los derechos humanos = human rights activist, human rights campaigner.
    * defensor de los intereses del ciudadano = watchdog.
    * defensor del pueblo = ombudsman [ombudsmen, -pl.].
    * defensor ecológico = eco-warrior.
    * defensor e impulsor = booster.
    * defensor incodicional = stalwart.
    * grupo defensor = interest group.

    * * *
    1 ‹ejército› defending ( before n)
    2 ( Der) ‹abogado› defense* ( before n)
    3
    (partidario): los delegados defensores del cambio the delegates in favor of o who advocate change
    masculine, feminine
    1 ( Mil) defender
    2 (de una causa) champion
    un defensor de nuestros recursos naturales a defender o champion of our natural resources
    un defensor de la fe a defender of the faith
    3 ( Der) defense counsel ( AmE), defence lawyer ( BrE)
    Compuestos:
    (CR) ombudsman
    ombudsman Defensor del pueblo (↑ defensor a1)
    * * *

    defensor
    ◊ - sora adjetivo


    b) (Der) ‹ abogado› defense( conjugate defense) ( before n)

    ■ sustantivo masculino, femenino
    a) (Mil) defender


    c) (Der) defense counsel (AmE), defence lawyer (BrE)

    defensor,-ora sustantivo masculino y femenino defender
    abogado defensor, counsel for the defence
    el defensor del pueblo, the ombudsman
    ' defensor' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    abanderada
    - abanderado
    - abogada
    - abogado
    - defensora
    - entusiasta
    - incondicional
    - paladín
    - acérrimo
    - ardiente
    - ferviente
    - guardián
    - protector
    English:
    advocate
    - campaigner
    - champion
    - consumer advocate
    - defender
    - ombudsman
    - proponent
    - protector
    - counsel
    - exponent
    - guardian
    * * *
    defensor, -ora
    ♦ adj
    1. [en tribunal]
    abogado defensor counsel for the defence
    2. [partidario]
    siempre fue defensor de una legislación más dura he always advocated tougher legislation;
    asociaciones defensoras de los consumidores consumer o consumers' associations
    ♦ nm,f
    1. [de ideal, persona] defender;
    [adalid] champion;
    un gran defensor de la paz a great campaigner for peace
    defensor del lector [en periódico] = person who represents the readership of a newspaper and deals with their complaints against the newspaper;
    defensor de oficio court-appointed defence lawyer;
    Esp defensor del pueblo ombudsman;
    defensor del soldado = public body created to defend the rights of soldiers, especially young soldiers doing military service
    2. [abogado] counsel for the defence
    * * *
    1 defender, champion;
    defensor de la naturaleza environmentalist
    2 JUR defense lawyer, Br
    defending counsel
    * * *
    defensor, - sora adj
    : defending, defense
    1) : defender, advocate
    2) : defense counsel

    Spanish-English dictionary > defensor

  • 11 comunidad

    f.
    1 community (grupo).
    comunidad de propietarios o de vecinos residents' association
    la comunidad científica/internacional the scientific/international community
    comunidad Andina Andean Community
    comunidad autónoma (politics) autonomous region, = largest administrative division in Spain, with its own Parliament and a number of devolved powers
    2 communion (cualidad de común) (de ideas, bienes).
    * * *
    1 community
    \
    en comunidad together
    comunidad autónoma autonomous region
    comunidad de propietarios owners' association
    Comunidad Económica Europea European Economic Community
    * * *
    noun f.
    * * *
    SF
    1) [gen] community; (=sociedad) society, association; (Rel) community; And commune ( of free Indians)

    de o en comunidad — (Jur) jointly

    comunidad autónoma — Esp autonomous region

    2) (=pago) [de piso] service charge, charge for communal services
    COMUNIDAD AUTÓNOMA In Spain the comunidades autónomas are any of the 19 administrative regions consisting of one or more provinces and having political powers devolved from Madrid, as stipulated by the 1978 Constitution. They have their own democratically elected parliaments, form their own cabinets and legislate and execute policies in certain areas such as housing, infrastructure, health and education, though Madrid still retains jurisdiction for all matters affecting the country as a whole, such as defence, foreign affairs and justice. The Comunidades Autónomas are: Andalucía, Aragón, Asturias, Islas Baleares, Canarias, Cantabria, Castilla y León, Castilla-La Mancha, Cataluña, Extremadura, Galicia, Madrid, Murcia, Navarra, País Vasco, La Rioja, Comunidad Valenciana, Ceuta and Melilla. The term Comunidades Históricas refers to Galicia, Catalonia and the Basque Country, which for reasons of history and language consider themselves to some extent separate from the rest of Spain. They were given a measure of independence by the Second Republic (1931-1936), only to have it revoked by Franco in 1939. With the transition to democracy, these groups were the most vociferous and successful in their demand for home rule, partly because they already had experience of federalism and had established a precedent with autonomous institutions like the Catalan Generalitat.
    * * *
    1)
    a) ( sociedad) community
    b) ( grupo delimitado) community
    c) (Relig) community
    d) ( asociación) association
    2) ( coincidencia) community

    comunidad de ideales/objetivos — community of ideals/objectives

    •• Cultural note:
    In 1978 power in Spain was decentralized and the country was divided into comunidades autónomas or autonomías (autonomous regions). The new communities have far greater autonomy from central government than the old regiones and were a response to nationalist aspirations, which had built up under Franco. Some regions have more autonomy than others. The Basque Country, Catalonia, and Galicia, for example, had political structures, a desire for independence and their own languages which underpinned their claims to distinctive identities. Andalusia gained almost complete autonomy without having had a nationalist tradition. Other regions, such as Madrid, are to some extent artificial, having been created largely to complete the process. The comunidades autónomas are: Andalusia, Aragon, Asturias, Balearic Islands, the Basque Country (Euskadi), Canary Islands, Cantabria, Castilla y León, Castilla-La Mancha, Catalonia, Extremadura, Galicia, Madrid, Murcia, Navarre, La Rioja, Valencia and the North African enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla
    * * *
    Ex. Language of documents and data bases will need to be tailored to each community.
    ----
    * asociación de la comunidad = community group.
    * biblioteca de la comunidad = community library.
    * bibliotecario encargado de los servicios dirigidos a la comunidad = community services librarian.
    * Comisión de las Comunidades Europeas (CEC) = Commission of the European Communities (CEC).
    * comunidad académica = academic community, learning community.
    * comunidad académica de investigadores = academic research community.
    * comunidad agrícola = farming community.
    * comunidad a la que se sirve = service area.
    * comunidad autónoma = autonomous region.
    * comunidad bancaria, la = banking community, the.
    * comunidad bibliotecaria, la = library community, the, librarianship community, the.
    * Comunidad Británica de Naciones, la = Commonwealth, the.
    * comunidad científica = knowledge community.
    * comunidad científica, la = scientific community, the, scholarly community, the, research community, the, scientific research community, the.
    * comunidad conectada electrónicamente = online community.
    * comunidad de bibliotecarios y documentalistas, la = library and information community, the.
    * comunidad de educadores, la = education community, the.
    * comunidad de lectores = reader community.
    * comunidad de naciones = comity of nations, commonwealth.
    * comunidad de pescadores = fishing community.
    * comunidad de prácticas comunes = community of practice, community of practice, community of practice.
    * comunidad de proveedores = vendor community.
    * comunidad de proveedores, la = vending community, the.
    * comunidad de usuarios = constituency, user community.
    * comunidad de vecinos = housing association.
    * comunidad dispersa = scattered community.
    * Comunidad Económica Europea (CEE) = European Economic Community (EEC).
    * comunidad editorial, la = publishing community, the.
    * comunidad electrónica = online community.
    * comunidad empresarial, la = business community, the.
    * Comunidad Europea (CE) = EC (European Community).
    * Comunidad Europea de la Energía Atómica (Euratom/EAEC) = European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom/EAEC).
    * Comunidad Europea del Carbón y el Acero (CECA) = European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).
    * comunidad internacional, la = international community, the.
    * comunidad laboral = working community.
    * comunidad lingüística = language community, linguistic community.
    * comunidad local = local community.
    * comunidad marginada = deprived community.
    * comunidad marginal = disadvantaged community.
    * comunidad mundial, la = world community, the.
    * comunidad pluralista = pluralistic community.
    * comunidad religiosa = religious community.
    * comunidad rural = rural community.
    * comunidad urbana = urban community.
    * de la propia comunidad = community-owned.
    * Denominación de Productos para las Estadísticas del Comercio Externo de la = Nomenclature of Goods for the External Trade Statistics of the Community and Statistics of Trade between Member States (NIMEXE).
    * derecho de la comunidad = community right.
    * dirigido a la comunidad = community-based.
    * implicación de la comunidad = community involvement.
    * la comunidad en general = the community at large.
    * líder de la comunidad = community leader.
    * miembro de la Comunidad = community member, Community member.
    * no perteneciente a la Comunidad Europea = non-EC.
    * países de la Comunidad Europea = European Communities.
    * países miembro de la Comunidad = Community partner.
    * país miembro de la Comunidad = Community member state.
    * patrocinado por la comunidad = community-sponsored.
    * representante de la comunidad = community activist.
    * residente en la comunidad = community-dwelling.
    * toda la comunidad = the community at large.
    * vida de la comunidad = community life.
    * * *
    1)
    a) ( sociedad) community
    b) ( grupo delimitado) community
    c) (Relig) community
    d) ( asociación) association
    2) ( coincidencia) community

    comunidad de ideales/objetivos — community of ideals/objectives

    •• Cultural note:
    In 1978 power in Spain was decentralized and the country was divided into comunidades autónomas or autonomías (autonomous regions). The new communities have far greater autonomy from central government than the old regiones and were a response to nationalist aspirations, which had built up under Franco. Some regions have more autonomy than others. The Basque Country, Catalonia, and Galicia, for example, had political structures, a desire for independence and their own languages which underpinned their claims to distinctive identities. Andalusia gained almost complete autonomy without having had a nationalist tradition. Other regions, such as Madrid, are to some extent artificial, having been created largely to complete the process. The comunidades autónomas are: Andalusia, Aragon, Asturias, Balearic Islands, the Basque Country (Euskadi), Canary Islands, Cantabria, Castilla y León, Castilla-La Mancha, Catalonia, Extremadura, Galicia, Madrid, Murcia, Navarre, La Rioja, Valencia and the North African enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla
    * * *

    Ex: Language of documents and data bases will need to be tailored to each community.

    * asociación de la comunidad = community group.
    * biblioteca de la comunidad = community library.
    * bibliotecario encargado de los servicios dirigidos a la comunidad = community services librarian.
    * Comisión de las Comunidades Europeas (CEC) = Commission of the European Communities (CEC).
    * comunidad académica = academic community, learning community.
    * comunidad académica de investigadores = academic research community.
    * comunidad agrícola = farming community.
    * comunidad a la que se sirve = service area.
    * comunidad autónoma = autonomous region.
    * comunidad bancaria, la = banking community, the.
    * comunidad bibliotecaria, la = library community, the, librarianship community, the.
    * Comunidad Británica de Naciones, la = Commonwealth, the.
    * comunidad científica = knowledge community.
    * comunidad científica, la = scientific community, the, scholarly community, the, research community, the, scientific research community, the.
    * comunidad conectada electrónicamente = online community.
    * comunidad de bibliotecarios y documentalistas, la = library and information community, the.
    * comunidad de educadores, la = education community, the.
    * comunidad de lectores = reader community.
    * comunidad de naciones = comity of nations, commonwealth.
    * comunidad de pescadores = fishing community.
    * comunidad de prácticas comunes = community of practice, community of practice, community of practice.
    * comunidad de proveedores = vendor community.
    * comunidad de proveedores, la = vending community, the.
    * comunidad de usuarios = constituency, user community.
    * comunidad de vecinos = housing association.
    * comunidad dispersa = scattered community.
    * Comunidad Económica Europea (CEE) = European Economic Community (EEC).
    * comunidad editorial, la = publishing community, the.
    * comunidad electrónica = online community.
    * comunidad empresarial, la = business community, the.
    * Comunidad Europea (CE) = EC (European Community).
    * Comunidad Europea de la Energía Atómica (Euratom/EAEC) = European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom/EAEC).
    * Comunidad Europea del Carbón y el Acero (CECA) = European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).
    * comunidad internacional, la = international community, the.
    * comunidad laboral = working community.
    * comunidad lingüística = language community, linguistic community.
    * comunidad local = local community.
    * comunidad marginada = deprived community.
    * comunidad marginal = disadvantaged community.
    * comunidad mundial, la = world community, the.
    * comunidad pluralista = pluralistic community.
    * comunidad religiosa = religious community.
    * comunidad rural = rural community.
    * comunidad urbana = urban community.
    * de la propia comunidad = community-owned.
    * Denominación de Productos para las Estadísticas del Comercio Externo de la = Nomenclature of Goods for the External Trade Statistics of the Community and Statistics of Trade between Member States (NIMEXE).
    * derecho de la comunidad = community right.
    * dirigido a la comunidad = community-based.
    * implicación de la comunidad = community involvement.
    * la comunidad en general = the community at large.
    * líder de la comunidad = community leader.
    * miembro de la Comunidad = community member, Community member.
    * no perteneciente a la Comunidad Europea = non-EC.
    * países de la Comunidad Europea = European Communities.
    * países miembro de la Comunidad = Community partner.
    * país miembro de la Comunidad = Community member state.
    * patrocinado por la comunidad = community-sponsored.
    * representante de la comunidad = community activist.
    * residente en la comunidad = community-dwelling.
    * toda la comunidad = the community at large.
    * vida de la comunidad = community life.

    * * *
    comunidad comunidad autónoma (↑ comunidad a1)
    A
    1 (sociedad) community
    para el bien de la comunidad for the good of the community
    2 (grupo delimitado) community
    la comunidad polaca the Polish community
    vivir en comunidad to live with other people
    3 ( Relig) community
    4 (asociación) association
    Compuestos:
    (British) Commonwealth
    ( Hist) European Economic Community
    ( Hist) European Community
    European Coal and Steel Community
    B (coincidencia) community
    no existe comunidad de ideales/objetivos entre ambos grupos there is no community of ideals/objectives between the two groups, the two groups do not share common ideals/objectives
    la sublevación de las Comunidades the Revolt of the Comuneros
    * * *

     

    comunidad sustantivo femenino
    community;

    comunidad sustantivo femenino community
    comunidad autónoma, autonomous region
    comunidad de bienes, co-ownership
    Comunidad Europea, European Community

    ' comunidad' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    bien
    - CE
    - CECA
    - CEE
    - consejería
    - depender
    - EURATOM
    - homologación
    - primar
    - pueblo
    - reintegrar
    - autonomía
    English:
    Commonwealth of Independent States
    - community
    - fraternity
    - homeowners assocation
    - integrate
    - scattered
    - service charge
    - European
    - general
    - pillar
    - service
    * * *
    1. [grupo] community;
    la comunidad científica/educativa/judía the scientific/education/Jewish community;
    vivir en comunidad to live in a community
    Comunidad Andina Andean Community, = organization for regional cooperation formed by Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela;
    comunidad autónoma autonomous region, = largest administrative division in Spain, with its own Parliament and a number of devolved powers;
    comunidad de base [religiosa] base community, = lay Catholic community independent of church hierarchy;
    Comunidad Británica de Naciones (British) Commonwealth;
    Antes Comunidad Económica Europea European Economic Community;
    la Comunidad Europea, las Comunidades Europeas the European Community;
    la comunidad internacional the international community;
    comunidad linguística speech community;
    comunidad de propietarios residents' association;
    comunidad de vecinos residents' association
    2. [de ideas, bienes] communion
    comunidad de bienes co-ownership [between spouses]
    3. Am [colectividad] commune;
    vive en una comunidad anarquista she lives in an anarchist commune
    COMUNIDAD ANDINA
    The Comunidad Andina de Naciones (CAN – Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela) has its origins in the 1969 “Acuerdo de Cartagena”. Over subsequent decades the various institutions which now form the CAN were set up: the Council of Foreign Ministers in 1979, the Court of Justice in 1983, the Presidential Council in 1990, and the General Secretariat in 1997. The ultimate aim has been to create a Latin American common market. A free trade area was established in 1993, and a common external customs tariff in 1994. While all members have adopted a common foreign policy, more ambitious attempts at integration have been less successful. However, with a combined population of 122 million, and a GDP in 2004 of 300 billion dollars, the community is a significant economic group. In 2004, the leaders of the countries of South America decided to create the “Comunidad Sudamericana de Naciones” (“South American Community of Nations”) or CSN by a gradual convergence between the CAN and Mercosur (Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay), plus Chile, Guyana and Surinam. This will create, in time, a vast free-trade area encompassing all of South America.
    * * *
    f community;
    hereditaria heirs pl
    * * *
    : community
    * * *
    comunidad n community [pl. communities]

    Spanish-English dictionary > comunidad

  • 12 cargo

    m.
    1 charge (cuidado).
    los niños han quedado a mi cargo the children have been left in my care
    estar a cargo de algo, tener algo a su cargo to be in charge of something
    me hago cargo de la difícil situación I am aware of o I realize the difficulty of the situation
    me da cargo de conciencia dejarle pagar I feel bad about letting him pay
    2 post, position (empleo).
    ocupa un cargo muy importante she holds a very important position o post
    cargo público public office
    3 charge (finance).
    con cargo a charged to
    correr a cargo de to be borne by
    hacerse cargo de to pay for
    formular graves cargos contra alguien to bring serious charges against somebody
    5 debit, fee, debit charge.
    6 freight, loading.
    7 office.
    pres.indicat.
    1st person singular (yo) present indicative of spanish verb: cargar.
    * * *
    1 (peso) load, weight
    2 (empleo) post, position
    3 (gobierno, custodia) charge, responsibility
    4 FINANZAS charge, debit
    5 DERECHO (falta) charge, accusation
    \
    correr a cargo de alguien to be the responsibility of somebody
    ■ el discurso de inauguración correrá a cargo del Sr. Torres Sr. Torres will make the opening speech
    desempeñar el cargo de / ocupar el cargo de to occupy the post of
    estar al cargo de to be in charge of
    hacerse cargo de (responsabilizarse de) to take charge of 2 (entender) to realize
    jurar el cargo to take an oath
    alto cargo top job, high-ranking position
    cargo de conciencia figurado weight on one's conscience
    * * *
    noun m.
    1) load, burden
    3) post, office
    * * *
    SM
    1) (=puesto) post

    ocupa el cargo de comisario europeo desde hace tres años — he has held the office o post of European Commissioner for three years

    • alto cargo — (=persona) top official, senior official; (=puesto) high-ranking position, top post

    ha dimitido un alto cargo directivo — a top o senior official has resigned

    • desempeñar un cargo — to hold a position

    • jurar el cargo — to be sworn in

    • poner el cargo a disposición de algn — euf to offer up one's post to sb

    cargo público — (=puesto) public office; (=persona) person in public office

    2)

    • a cargo de —

    a) (=responsable de) in charge of, responsible for
    b) (=bajo la responsabilidad de)

    "formación a cargo de la empresa" — "training will be provided"

    la clausura del festival estará a cargo de Plácido Domingo — Plácido Domingo will be the main attraction of the festival's closing ceremony

    las reparaciones correrán a cargo del dueño — the cost of repairs will be met by the owner, repairs will be paid for by the owner

    • tener algo a su cargo — to be in charge of sth, be responsible for sth

    3)

    • hacerse cargo de — (=encargarse) to take charge of; (=pagar) to pay for; (=entender) to realize

    cuando él murió, su hijo se hizo cargo del negocio — when he died, his son took charge of o took over the business

    me hago cargo de la importancia de estas conversaciones — I am aware of o realize how important these talks are

    -estamos pasando unos momentos difíciles -sí, ya me hago cargo — "we're going through difficult times" - "yes, I understand o realize"

    4) (Com) charge

    cargo por gestión — [de un billete electrónico] administration fee

    5) (Jur) charge

    cargo de conciencia, tengo cargo de conciencia por el tiempo perdido — I feel guilty about all that wasted time

    pliego, testigo 1., 1)
    6) Chile, Perú (=certificación) date stamp ( providing proof of when a document was submitted)
    * * *
    1) ( puesto) post, position (frml)
    2) (responsabilidad, cuidado)
    a)

    a cargo de alguien: los niños están a mi cargo the children are in my care o (frml) charge; el negocio quedó a su cargo he was left in charge of the business; dejé/puse las ventas a cargo de Luque I left/put Luque in charge of sales; tiene cuatro hijos a su cargo or (Col) a cargo he has four children to support; tiene a su cargo la división comercial — she is responsible for o in charge of the sales department

    b)
    c)

    correr a cargo de alguien: los gastos corren a cargo de la empresa expenses will be paid o met by the company; la organización del concierto corre a mi cargo — I'm responsible for organizing the concert

    d)

    hacerse cargo de algo — ( hacerse responsable) de puesto/tarea to take charge of something; de gastos to take care of something; ( comprender) (Esp) to undertand something, to appreciate something

    3) (Com, Fin) charge

    con cargo a mi cuenta — to be debited against o charged to my account

    4) (Der) charge
    * * *
    1) ( puesto) post, position (frml)
    2) (responsabilidad, cuidado)
    a)

    a cargo de alguien: los niños están a mi cargo the children are in my care o (frml) charge; el negocio quedó a su cargo he was left in charge of the business; dejé/puse las ventas a cargo de Luque I left/put Luque in charge of sales; tiene cuatro hijos a su cargo or (Col) a cargo he has four children to support; tiene a su cargo la división comercial — she is responsible for o in charge of the sales department

    b)
    c)

    correr a cargo de alguien: los gastos corren a cargo de la empresa expenses will be paid o met by the company; la organización del concierto corre a mi cargo — I'm responsible for organizing the concert

    d)

    hacerse cargo de algo — ( hacerse responsable) de puesto/tarea to take charge of something; de gastos to take care of something; ( comprender) (Esp) to undertand something, to appreciate something

    3) (Com, Fin) charge

    con cargo a mi cuenta — to be debited against o charged to my account

    4) (Der) charge
    * * *
    cargo1
    1 = officer, official, position, post, office, job title, incumbent.
    Nota: Nombre.

    Ex: Thus, sometimes the information does not reach those officers who would benefit most from access to it.

    Ex: See also reference tracings include related headings such as personal and corporate headings for officials, pseudonyms used as uniform headings, etc.
    Ex: He has held a variety of positions of increasing responsibility.
    Ex: The chief librarian or director of libraries, by which title the post is sometimes now known, will in general be fully occupied with making decisions on internal professional policy.
    Ex: Until Groome appeared, city officials were chosen not so much for their ability to administer the affairs of their offices as for who they knew; hence, old-style machine politics with its accompanying corruption found a congenial atmosphere in which to operate.
    Ex: The job title is designed to indicate the group (professional, associate, technician, or clerk) to which the job belongs and the level of the job within that grouping.
    Ex: This practice of having the former incumbent of the job train the new employee is risky, particularly if that departing employee has in any way been a problem.
    * alto cargo = senior post, senior manager, senior executive, high official, top manager, senior official.
    * alto cargo público = senior public official.
    * altos cargos = people in high office.
    * ascender a un cargo = rise to + position.
    * aspirar a un cargo = aspire to + position.
    * beneficios del cargo, los = spoils of office, the.
    * cargo de director = directorship.
    * cargo directivo = senior post, top official, senior position, managerial position, executive position, top position.
    * cargo ejecutivo = managerial position, executive position.
    * cargo ejecutivo del gobierno = government executive.
    * cargo ministerial = ministry official.
    * cargo oficial = officer.
    * cargo político = government official.
    * cargo público = public official, federal official, elected official, public office.
    * dejar un cargo = resign + office, step down from + Posesivo + position, leave + office.
    * dimitir de un cargo = step down from + Posesivo + position, stand down.
    * en el cargo = in the saddle, in office.
    * en virtud del cargo que ocupa = ex officio.
    * en virtud de su cargo = ex officio.
    * jurar un cargo = swear in.
    * ocupar el cargo = be in the position.
    * ocupar un cargo = hold + position.
    * ocupar un cargo de dirección = hold + a chair.
    * persona designada para un cargo = appointee.
    * prebendas del cargo, las = spoils of office, the.
    * relevar de un cargo = relieve of + duty.
    * renunciar a un cargo = step down from + Posesivo + position, stand down.
    * titular del cargo = incumbent.
    * tomar posesión de un cargo = swear in, take + office.

    cargo2

    Ex: The responsibility for manning the one telephone left at the disposal of a residue of callers fell to a single officer who had other duties to carry out to justify his keep.

    * a cargo = in the saddle.
    * a cargo (de) = charged with, in charge (of).
    * a cargo de Alguien = under supervision.
    * a cargo de las riendas = in the saddle.
    * a cargo del ayuntamiento = local authority-run.
    * a cargo del gobierno = government-operated, government-run.
    * a cargo de una sola persona = one-man band.
    * a cargo de voluntarios = volunteer-run.
    * Algo a cargo de una sola persona = one-person operation.
    * bajo el cargo de = on charges of.
    * cargo de conciencia = guilty conscience.
    * con cargo a = to be debited to, to be charged to.
    * con cargo de conciencia = remorseful.
    * correr a cargo de = be the responsibility of.
    * estar a cargo de = man, be the responsibility of.
    * familiar a cargo = dependent.
    * hacerse cargo = take over, assume + role.
    * hacerse cargo de = take + charge of, take + Nombre + under + Posesivo + wings.
    * hacerse cargo de Algo = take (+ Nombre) + on board (+ Nombre), hold + the fort, hold + the fortress.
    * persona a cargo = dependent.
    * poner a Alguien al cargo de = put + Nombre + in charge of.
    * poner a cargo de = put in + charge of.
    * tener a cargo de uno = have + as + Posesivo + charge.
    * tener a + Posesivo + cargo = have + in + Posesivo + charge.

    cargo3
    3 = charge, indictment.

    Ex: No less prestigious an authority than a Royal Commission was appointed to inquire into the charges brought against the man principally responsible for that volume.

    Ex: Enter indictments as instructed in rule 21.36C1.
    * absolver a Alguien de todos los cargos = acquit + Nombre + on all counts.
    * cargos criminales = criminal charges.
    * formular cargos contra = bring + charges against.
    * formular cargos contra Alguien = press + charges.
    * libertad sin cargos = unconditional discharge.

    cargo4
    * culto al cargo = cargo cult.
    * nota de cargo = credit note.
    * * *
    A (puesto) position ( frml), post
    desempeña un cargo importante en la empresa he has o holds an important position in the firm
    tiene un cargo de mucha responsabilidad she has a very responsible job o post o position
    hoy toma posesión de su cargo he takes up his post o position today, he takes up office today
    alto1 (↑ alto (1))
    Compuesto:
    los que ostentan cargos públicos those who hold public office
    B (responsabilidad, cuidado)
    1
    a cargo de algn: los niños están a mi cargo the children are in my care o ( frml) charge
    un concierto a cargo de la Orquesta Nacional ( frml); a concert performed by the National Orchestra
    el negocio quedó a su cargo he was left in charge of the business
    dejé/puse las ventas a cargo de Luque I left/put Luque in charge of sales
    tiene cuatro hijos a su cargoor ( Col) a cargo he has four children to support
    tiene a su cargo la división comercial she is responsible for o in charge of the sales department
    2
    al cargo de algo in charge of sth
    quedó/lo pusieron al cargo del departamento he was left/they put him in charge of the department
    3
    correr a cargo de algn: los gastos corren a cargo de la empresa expenses will be paid o met by the company
    la organización del concierto corre a cargo de su ayudante her assistant is responsible for organizing the concert
    el papel principal corre a cargo de Fernando Arias the main part o the leading role is played by Fernando Arias
    4
    hacerse cargo de algo (hacerse responsable) ‹de un puesto/una tarea› to take charge of sth;
    ‹de gastos› to take care of sth; (entender) ( Esp) to be aware of sth
    ¿podría hacerse cargo de nuestra sucursal en Panamá? could you take charge of o head our branch in Panama?
    mi abuela se hizo cargo de mí my grandmother took care of me
    me hago cargo de la gravedad de la situación I am aware of the gravity of the situation
    es un problema difícil — sí, me hago cargo it's a difficult problem — yes, I realize that o I am aware of that
    Compuesto:
    no tengo ningún cargo de conciencia por no haber ido a visitarlo I don't feel at all guilty for not having been to visit him, I feel no remorse at not having been to visit him
    me da/quedó un cargo de conciencia horrible I feel/felt terribly guilty
    C ( Com, Fin) charge
    sin cargo adicional at no additional cost, at no extra charge
    sin cargo free of charge
    pidió unos cheques de viaje con cargo a su cuenta she ordered some traveler's checks to be debited against o charged to her account
    D ( Der) charge
    niega todos los cargos que se le imputan he denies all the charges against him
    * * *

     

    Del verbo cargar: ( conjugate cargar)

    cargo es:

    1ª persona singular (yo) presente indicativo

    cargó es:

    3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) pretérito indicativo

    Multiple Entries:
    cargar    
    cargo
    cargar ( conjugate cargar) verbo transitivo
    1
    a) ‹barco/avión/camión› to load;


    no cargues tanto el coche don't put so much in the car
    b) ‹pistola/escopeta› to load;

    ‹pluma/encendedor› to fill;
    ‹ cámara› to load, put a film in
    c) (Elec) to charge

    2

    b) ‹ combustible› to fuel;

    ◊ tengo que cargo nafta (RPl) I have to fill up with gasoline (AmE) o (BrE) petrol

    c) (Inf) to load

    3 ( de obligaciones) cargo a algn de algo to burden sb with sth;
    ◊ me cargoon la culpa they put o laid the blame on me

    4
    a) ‹paquetes/bolsas› to carry;

    ‹ niño› (AmL) to carry
    b) (AmL exc RPl) ‹ armas› to carry

    c) (Ven fam) ( llevar puesto) to wear;

    ( tener consigo):

    5 ( a una cuenta) to charge
    6 (Méx fam) ( matar) to kill
    verbo intransitivo
    1 cargo con algo ‹ con bulto› to carry sth;

    2 cargo contra algn [tropas/policía] to charge on o at sb
    3 [ batería] to charge
    4 (fam) ( fastidiar):

    cargarse verbo pronominal
    1
    a) [pilas/flash] to charge;

    [ partícula] to become charged
    b) cargose de algo ‹de bolsas/equipaje› to load oneself down with sth;

    ‹ de responsabilidades› to take on a lot of sth;
    ‹ de deudas› to saddle oneself with sth
    2
    a) (fam) ( matar) to kill

    b) (Esp fam) ‹ motor› to wreck;

    ‹ jarrón› to smash
    cargo sustantivo masculino
    1 ( puesto) post, position (frml);
    (de presidente, ministro) office;

    un cargo de responsabilidad a responsible job o post
    2 (responsabilidad, cuidado):

    estar a cargo de algo to be in charge of sth;
    los gastos corren a cargo de la empresa expenses will be paid o met by the company;
    hacerse cargo de algo ‹de puesto/tarea› to take charge of sth;

    ‹ de gastos› to take care of sth;

    3
    a) (Com, Fin) charge;


    b) (Der) charge

    cargar
    I verbo transitivo
    1 to load: cargó al niño en brazos, she took the boy in her arms
    2 (un mechero, una pluma) to fill
    3 (poner carga eléctrica) to charge
    4 (atribuir algo negativo) cargar a alguien con las culpas, to put the blame on sb
    le cargan la responsabilidad a su padre, they put the blame on his father
    5 Com to charge: cárguelo a mi cuenta, charge it to my account
    6 familiar Educ to fail
    II verbo intransitivo
    1 (soportar, hacerse cargo) to lumber [con, with]: carga con la casa y con la suegra, she has to do all the housework as well as having to take care of her mother-in-law
    figurado cargar con las consecuencias, to suffer the consequences
    2 (llevar un peso) to carry: siempre carga con lo más pesado, he always takes the heaviest
    3 (arremeter, atacar) to charge [contra, against]
    cargo sustantivo masculino
    1 (puesto) post, position
    2 (cuidado, responsabilidad) charge
    estar al cargo de, to be in charge of
    3 Jur charge, accusation
    4 Fin charge, debit 5 cargo de conciencia, weight on one's conscience, remorse
    ♦ Locuciones: correr a cargo de, (gastos) to be met by
    hacerse cargo de, to take charge of: en seguida se hizo cargo de mi situación, he understood my situation immediately
    ' cargo' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    acceder
    - acusación
    - adscribir
    - alcaldía
    - antecesor
    - antecesora
    - antigua
    - antiguo
    - candidata
    - candidato
    - candidatura
    - carga
    - cargar
    - cargamento
    - cargarse
    - censor
    - censora
    - cesar
    - consejería
    - correr
    - cuidada
    - cuidado
    - dimitir
    - dirección
    - disputarse
    - educación
    - flete
    - función
    - inhabilitar
    - jefatura
    - jurar
    - juramentar
    - lamentarse
    - minoritaria
    - minoritario
    - nombrar
    - ostentar
    - permanencia
    - poltrona
    - posesión
    - presentarse
    - pretendienta
    - pretendiente
    - regentar
    - rehabilitación
    - reintegrar
    - relevar
    - relumbrón
    - renuncia
    - renunciar
    English:
    appointment
    - assume
    - backbencher
    - band
    - bump off
    - by-election
    - cargo
    - charge
    - count
    - denial
    - deny
    - drop
    - ex
    - foreman
    - handle
    - impression
    - incitement
    - inflict
    - lay on
    - office
    - outrank
    - resign
    - set down
    - shed
    - stand down
    - succeed
    - toss about
    - toss around
    - vessel
    - back
    - commission
    - dean
    - debit
    - dependant
    - discharge
    - dock
    - extra
    - fly
    - front
    - handling
    - impeach
    - incumbent
    - land
    - landing
    - lay
    - load
    - meet
    - reinstate
    - relieve
    - seize
    * * *
    cargo nm
    1. [empleo] post, position;
    ocupa o [m5] es un cargo muy importante she holds a very important position o post;
    tomar posesión del cargo to take up office
    cargo directivo manager;
    cargo público: [m5] ostenta o [m5] es un cargo público she holds public office;
    varios cargos públicos se han visto involucrados en el escándalo several people holding public office have been implicated in the scandal
    2. [cuidado] charge;
    los niños han quedado a mi cargo the children have been left in my care;
    una producción a cargo del Teatro Nacional a National Theatre production;
    está a cargo de o [m5] tiene a su cargo la seguridad de la empresa he is in charge of o responsible for company security;
    hacerse cargo de [asumir el control de] to take charge of;
    [ocuparse de] to take care of; [comprender] to understand;
    se hizo cargo de la gestión de la empresa she took over the running of the company;
    el ejército se hizo cargo del poder the army took power o took over;
    no te preocupes, yo me hago cargo de los niños don't worry, I'll look after the children;
    me hago cargo de la difícil situación I am aware of o I realize the difficulty of the situation;
    tenemos que ir al entierro y llegaremos tarde – sí, me hago cargo we have to go to the funeral, so we'll be late – OK, I understand
    3. Econ charge;
    con cargo a charged to;
    correr a cargo de to be borne by;
    todos los gastos corren a cargo de la empresa all expenses will be borne by the company;
    la comida corre a cargo de la empresa the meal is on the company;
    la organización corre a cargo del Municipio the organization will be carried out by the town council, the town council will be organizing the event;
    sin cargo adicional for o at no extra charge
    4. [acusación] charge;
    formular graves cargos contra alguien to bring serious charges against sb;
    cargo de conciencia:
    tener cargo de conciencia to feel pangs of conscience, to feel remorse;
    me da cargo de conciencia dejarle pagar I feel bad about letting him pay;
    comprar productos de este país me representa un cargo de conciencia I feel guilty about buying this country's products
    5. [buque de carga] cargo ship, freighter
    * * *
    m
    1 position;
    alto cargo high-ranking position; persona high-ranking official;
    cargo ministerial ministerial post
    2 JUR charge
    3
    :
    a cargo de la madre in the mother’s care;
    tener algo a su cargo, estar a cargo de algo be in charge of sth;
    está a cargo de Gómez Gómez is in charge of it;
    hacerse cargo de algo take charge of sth;
    tomar a su cargo take charge of
    4 COM
    :
    con cargo a nosotros on our account
    5
    :
    me da cargo de conciencia it makes me feel guilty
    * * *
    cargo nm
    1) : burden, load
    2) : charge
    a cargo de: in charge of
    3) : position, office
    * * *
    1. (empleo) post
    2. (delito) charge
    hacerse cargo (encargarse de) to take charge of [pt. took; pp. taken] (comprender) to understand [pt. & pp. understood]

    Spanish-English dictionary > cargo

  • 13 Stuart, James

    [br]
    b. 2 January 1843 Balgonie, Fife, Scotland
    d. 12 October 1913 Norwich, Norfolk, England
    [br]
    Scottish engineer and educator.
    [br]
    James Stuart established the teaching of engineering as a university discipline at Cambridge. He was born at Balgonie in Fife, where his father managed a linen mill. He attended the University of St Andrews and then studied mathematics at Cambridge University. In 1867 he took up a post as Assistant Tutor at Trinity College, Cambridge, where his skills as a teacher were quickly recognized. The University was at that time adapting itself to the new systems of instruction recommended by the Royal Commission on university reform in the 1850s, and Stuart took an active part in the organization of a new structure of inter-collegiate lecture courses. He made an even more significant contribution to the establishment of extramural courses from which the Cambridge University extension lecture programme developed. This began in 1867, when Stuart took adult classes in Manchester and Crewe. The latter, in particular, brought him into close contact with those involved in practical mechanics and stimulated his interest in the applied sciences. In 1875 he was elected to the newly created Chair of Mechanism and Engineering in Cambridge, and he set out energetically to recruit students and to build up a flourishing unit with its own workshop and foundry, training a new generation of engineers in the applied sciences.
    In November 1884 Stuart was elected to Parliament and embarked on an active but somewhat undistinguished career in politics as a radical Liberal, becoming amongst other things a keen supporter of the women's suffrage movement. This did not endear him to his academic colleagues, and the Engineering School suffered from neglect by Stuart until he resigned the Chair in 1890. By the time he left, however, the University was ready to recognize Engineering as a Tripos subject and to accept properly equipped teaching laboratories, so that his successor J.A. Ewing was able to benefit from Stuart's pioneering work. Stuart continued his political activities and was appointed a Privy Councillor in 1909. He married Elizabeth Colman after resigning the Chair, and on the death of his father-in-law in 1898 he moved to Norwich to take on the direction of the family mustard firm, J. \& J.Colman Ltd.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    Hilken, 1967, Engineering at Cambridge, Ch. 3, pp. 58–106.
    AB

    Biographical history of technology > Stuart, James

  • 14 Yarrow, Sir Alfred Fernandez

    SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping
    [br]
    b. 13 January 1842 London, England
    d. 24 January 1932 London, England
    [br]
    English shipbuilder, naval architect, engineer and philanthropist.
    [br]
    At the conclusion of his schooling in the South of England, Yarrow became an indentured apprentice to the Thames engine-builder Ravenhill. During this five-year period various incidents and meetings sharpened his interest in scientific matters and he showed the skills that in later years were to be so beneficial to shipbuilding. For two years he acted as London representative for Ravenhill before joining up with a Mr Hedley to form a shipyard on the Isle of Dogs. The company lasted from 1868 until 1875 and in that period produced 350 small launches and other craft. This massive output enabled Yarrow to gain confidence in many aspects of ship design. Within two years of setting out on his own he built his first ship for the Royal Navy: a torpedo boat, then at the cutting edge of technology.
    In the early 1890s the company was building watertube boilers and producing destroyers with speeds in excess of 27 knots (50 km/h); it built the Russian destroyer Sokol, did pioneering work with aluminium and with high-tensile steels and worked on shipboard equipment to nullify vibrational effects. With the closure of most of the Thames shipyards and the run-down in skilled labour, Yarrow decided that the shipyard must move to some other part of the United Kingdom. After careful deliberation a green field site to the west of Glasgow was chosen, and in 1908 their first Clyde-built destroyer was launched. The company expanded, more building berths were arranged, boiler construction was developed and over the years they became recognized as specialists in smaller highspeed craft and in "knock down" ships for other parts of the world.
    Yarrow retired in 1913, but at the commencement of the First World War he returned to help the yard produce, in four years, twenty-nine destroyers with speeds of up to 40 knots (74 km/h). At the end of hostilities he gave of his time and money to many charities, including those for ex-servicemen. He left a remarkable industrial organization which remains to this day the most prolific builder of surface craft for the Royal Navy.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Created Baronet 1916. FRS 1922. Vice-President, Institution of Naval Architects 1896.
    Further Reading
    Lady Yarrow, 1924, Alfred Yarrow, His Life and Work, London: Edward Arnold. A.Borthwick, 1965, Yarrow and Company Limited, The First Hundred Years 1865–
    1965, Glasgow.
    B.Baxter, 1986, "Alfred Fernandez Yarrow", Dictionary of Scottish Business Biography, Vol. I, pp. 245–7, Slaven \& Checkland and Aberdeen University Press.
    FMW

    Biographical history of technology > Yarrow, Sir Alfred Fernandez

  • 15 public broadcasting service

    1) СМИ., гос. упр. общественное вещание (вещание некоммерческих СМИ на средства, собранные со слушателей и телезрителей)
    2) СМИ, гос. упр. = !
    "
    может быть, просто ""public broadcasting"", а не ""public broadcasting service""?
    "
    !
    "
    The Public Broadcasting Service ( PBS) is a non-profit public broadcasting television service with 354 member TV stations in the United States, with some member stations available over the air and by cable in Canada. While the term ""broadcasting"" encompasses both radio and television, PBS only covers TV; public radio in the United States is served by National Public Radio, as well as content providers American Public Media, and Public Radio International.
    "
    PBS was founded on November 3, 1969,[1\] at which time it took over many of the functions of its predecessor, National Educational Television (NET) (which merged with station WNDT Newark, New Jersey to form WNET). It commenced broadcasting on Monday, October 5, 1970. In 1973, it merged with Educational Television Stations.
    PBS is a non-profit, private corporation which is owned collectively by its member stations.[2\] However, its operations are largely funded by the Corporation for Public Broadcasting. Its headquarters are in Arlington, Virginia.
    Unlike the commercial television broadcast model of American networks such as ABC, CBS, FOX, NBC, The CW and MyNetworkTV, in which affiliates give up portions of their local advertising airtime in exchange for network programming, PBS member stations pay substantial fees for the shows acquired and distributed by the national organization.
    "
    This relationship means that PBS member stations have greater latitude in local scheduling than their commercial counterparts. Scheduling of PBS-distributed series may vary greatly from market to market. This can be a source of tension as stations seek to preserve their localism and PBS strives to market a consistent national line-up. However, PBS has a policy of ""common carriage"" requiring most stations to clear the national prime time programs on a common schedule, so that they can be more effectively marketed on a national basis. This setup is in many ways similar to the pre-2002 British ITV system of having some ""networked"" programs shown nationwide on all network contractors, and the remainder of scheduling being up to individual affiliates.
    " "
    Unlike its radio counterpart, National Public Radio, PBS has no central program production arm or news department. All of the programming carried by PBS, whether news, documentary, or entertainment, is created by (or in most cases produced under contract with) other parties, such as individual member stations. WGBH in Boston is one of the largest producers of educational programming. News programs are produced by WETA-TV in Washington, D.C., WNET in New York and WPBT in Miami. The Charlie Rose interview show, Secrets of the Dead, NOW, Nature, Cyberchase, and The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer come from or through WNET in New York. Once a program is offered to and accepted by PBS for distribution, PBS (and not the member station that supplied the program) retains exclusive rights for rebroadcasts during the period for which such rights were granted; the suppliers do maintain the right to sell the program in non-broadcast media such as DVDs, books, and sometimes PBS licensed merchandise (but sometimes grant such ancillary rights as well to PBS).
    " "
    PBS stations are commonly operated by non-profit organizations, state agencies, local authorities (e.g., municipal boards of education), or universities in their community of license. In some states, PBS stations throughout the entire state may be organized into a single regional ""subnetwork"" (e.g., Alabama Public Television). Unlike Canada's CBC/SRC, PBS does not own any of the stations that broadcast its programming. This is partly due to the origins of the PBS stations themselves, and partly due to historical license issues.
    "
    In the modern broadcast marketplace, this organizational structure is considered outmoded by some media critics. A common restructuring proposal is to reorganize the network so that each state would have one PBS affiliate which would broadcast state-wide. However, this proposal is controversial, as it would reduce local community input into PBS programming, especially considering how PBS stations are significantly more community-oriented, according to the argument, than their commercial counterparts.
    * * *

    Англо-русский экономический словарь > public broadcasting service

  • 16 ἀρχή

    ἀρχή, ῆς, ἡ (Hom.+)
    ① the commencement of someth. as an action, process, or state of being, beginning, i.e. a point of time at the beginning of a duration.
    ⓐ gener. (opp. τέλος; cp. Diod S 16, 1, 1 ἀπʼ ἀρχῆς μέχρι τοῦ τέλους; Ael. Aristid. 30, 24 K.=10 p. 123 D.: ἐξ ἀ. εἰς τέλος; Appian, Bell. Civ. 5, 9, §36; Wsd 7:18) B 1:6; IEph 14:1; IMg 13:1; IRo 1:2, cp. vs. 1. W. gen. foll. (OGI 458, 10 life) ἡμέρας ὀγδόης B 15:8; ἡμερῶν (2 Km 14:26) Hb 7:3; τῶν σημείων first of the signs J 2:11 (ἀ. τοῦ ἡμετέρου δόγματος Orig., C. Cels. 2, 4, 20; cp. Isocr., Paneg. 10:38 Blass ἀλλʼ ἀρχὴν μὲν ταύτην ἐποιήσατο τ. εὐεργεσιῶν, τροφὴν τοῖς δεομένοις εὑρεῖν=but [Athens] made this the starting point of her benefactions: to provide basic needs for livelihood; Pr 8:22; Jos., Ant. 8, 229 ἀ. κακῶν); ὠδίνων Mt 24:8; Mk 13:8; κακῶν ISm 7:2. As the beginning, i.e. initial account, in a book (Ion of Chios [V B.C.] 392 Fgm. 24 Jac. [=Leurini no. 114] ἀρχὴ τοῦ λόγου; Polystrat. p. 28; Diod S 17, 1, 1 ἡ βύβλος τὴν ἀ. ἔσχε ἀπὸ …; Ael. Aristid. 23, 2 K.=42 p. 768 D.: ἐπʼ ἀρχῇ τοῦ συγγράμματος; Diog. L. 3, 37 ἡ ἀρχὴ τῆς Πολιτείας; cp. Sb 7696, 53; 58 [250 A.D.]) ἀ. τοῦ εὐαγγελίου Ἰ. Χ. Beginning of the gospel of J. C. Mk 1:1 (cp. Hos 1:2 ἀ. λόγου κυρίου πρὸς Ὡσηέ; s. RHarris, Exp. 8th ser., 1919, 113–19; 1920, 142–50; 334–50; FDaubanton, NThSt 2, 1919, 168–70; AvanVeldhuizen, ibid., 171–75; EEidem, Ingressen til Mkevangeliet: FBuhl Festschr. 1925, 35–49; NFreese, StKr 104, ’32, 429–38; AWikgren, JBL 61, ’42, 11–20 [ἀρχή=summary]; LKeck, NTS 12, ’65/66, 352–70). ἀ. τῆς ὑποστάσεως original commitment Hb 3:14. ἀρχὴν ἔχειν w. gen. of the inf. begin to be someth. IEph 3:1. ἀρχὴν λαμβάνειν begin (Polyb.; Aelian, VH 2, 28; 12, 53; Diog. L., Prooem. 3, 4; Sext. Emp., Phys. 1, 366; Philo, Mos. 1, 81) λαλεῖσθαι to be proclaimed at first Hb 2:3; cp. IEph 19:3.—W. prep. ἀπʼ ἀρχῆς from the beginning (Paus. 3, 18, 2; SIG 741, 20; UPZ 160, 15 [119 B.C.]; BGU 1141, 44; JosAs 23:4; Jos., Ant. 8, 350; 9, 30) J 6:64 v.l.; 15:27; 1J 2:7, 24; 3:11; 2J 5f; Ac 26:4; MPol 17:1; Hs 9, 11, 9; Dg 12:3. οἱ ἀπʼ ἀ. αὐτόπται those who fr. the beginning were eyewitnesses Lk 1:2. Also ἐξ ἀρχῆς (Diod. Sic. 18, 41, 7; Appian, Bell. Civ. 5, 45 [189]; SIG 547, 9; 634, 4; UPZ 185 II 5; PGen 7, 8; BGU 1118, 21; Jos., Bell. 7, 358) J 6:64; 16:4; 1 Cl 19:2; Pol 7:2; Dg 2:1. πάλιν ἐξ ἀ. (Ael. Aristid. 21, 10 K.=22 p. 443 D.; SIG 972, 174) again fr. the beginning (=afresh, anew; a common expr., Renehan ’75, 42) B 16:8. ἐν ἀρχῇ (Diod S 19, 110, 5; Palaeph. p. 2, 3; OGI 56, 57; PPetr II, 37, 2b verso, 4; PTebt 762, 9; POxy 1151, 15; BGU 954, 26; ViHab 14 [p. 87, 4 Sch.]) at the beginning, at first Ac 11:15; AcPlCor 2:4. ἐν ἀ. τοῦ εὐαγγελίου when the gospel was first preached Phil 4:15; sim., word for word, w. ref. to beg. of 1 Cor: 1 Cl 47:2.—τὴν ἀ. J 8:25, as nearly all the Gk. fathers understood it, is emphatically used adverbially=ὅλως at all (Plut., Mor. 115b; Dio Chrys. 10 [11], 12; 14 [31], 5; 133; Lucian, Eunuch. 6 al.; Ps.-Lucian, Salt. 3; POxy 472, 17 [c. 130 A.D.]; Philo, Spec. Leg. 3, 121; Jos., Ant. 1, 100; 15, 235 al.; as a rule in neg. clauses, but the negation can inhere in the sense: 48th letter of Apollonius of Tyana [Philostrat. I 356, 17]; Philo, Abrah. 116, Decal. 89; Ps.-Clem., Hom. 6, 11; without art. ApcSed 10:3; cp. Hs 2:5 cj. by W., endorsed by Joly; s. Field, Notes, 93f) τὴν ἀ. ὅτι καὶ λαλῶ ὑμῖν (how is it) that I even speak to you at all? But s. B-D-F §300, 2. More prob. the mng. is somewhat as follows: What I said to you from the first (so NT in Basic English; sim. REB et al.; cp. τὴν ἀρχήν ‘at the beginning’ Thu 2, 74, 2; s. also RFunk, HTR 51, ’58, 95–100; B-D-F §300, 2, but appeal to P66 is specious, s. EMiller, TZ 36, ’80, 261).
    ⓑ beginning, origin in the abs. sense (ἀ. τῆς τῶν πάντων ὑποστάσεως Orig. C. Cels. 6, 65, 4) ἀ. πάντων χαλεπῶν Pol 4:1; ἀ. κακῶν ISm 7:2 (cp. 1 Ti 6:10, which has ῥίζα for ἀ., and s. e.g. Ps 110:10; Sir 10:13); ἀ. κόσμου B 15:8; ἀ. πάντων PtK 2, p. 13, 21. ἀπʼ ἀρχῆς fr. the very beginning (Is 43:13; Wsd 9:8; 12:11; Sir 24:9 al.; PsSol 8:31; GrBar 17:2) Mt 19:4, 8; J 8:44; 1J 1:1 (of the Hist. beg. of Christianity: HWendt, D. Johannesbriefe u. d. joh. Christent. 1925, 31f; HWindisch, Hdb. ad loc.; difft. HConzelmann, RBultmann Festschr., ’54, 194–201); 3:8; 2 Th 2:13; ὁ ἀπʼ ἀ. 1J 2:13f; Dg 11:4; οἱ ἀπʼ ἀ. those at the very beginning, the first people 12:3; τὰ ἀπʼ ἀ. γενόμενα 1 Cl 31:1; ἀπʼ ἀ. κτίσεως Mk 10:6; 13:19; 2 Pt 3:4 (on ἀ. κτίσεως cp. En 15:9); ἀπʼ ἀ. κόσμου Mt 24:21. Also ἐξ ἀ. (X., Mem. 1, 4, 5; Ael. Aristid. 43, 9 K.=1 p. 3 D. [of the existence of Zeus]; TestAbr A 15 p. 96, 11 [Stone p. 40]; B 4 p. 109, 7 [St. p. 66]; Ath., R. 16, p. 67, 18; Philo, Aet. M. 42, Spec. Leg. 1, 300; Did., Gen. 50, 1) Dg 8:11; ἐν ἀ. in the beginning (Simplicius in Epict. p. 104, 2; Did., Gen. 29, 25 al.) J 1:1f; ἐν ἀ. τῆς κτίσεως B 15:3. κατʼ ἀρχάς in the beg. Hb 1:10 (Ps 101:26; cp. Hdt. 3, 153 et al.; Diod S; Plut.; Philo, Leg. All. 3, 92, Det. Pot. Insid. 118; Ps 118:152; Just., D. 2, 3).
    ② one with whom a process begins, beginning fig., of pers. (Gen 49:3 Ῥουβὴν σὺ ἀρχὴ τέκνων μου; Dt 21:17): of Christ Col 1:18. W. τέλος of God or Christ Rv 1:8 v.l.; 21:6; 22:13 (Hymn to Selene 35 ἀ. καὶ τέλος εἶ: Orphica p. 294, likew. PGM 4, 2836; 13, 362; 687; Philo, Plant. 93; Jos., Ant. 8, 280; others in Rtzst., Poim. 270ff and cp. SIG 1125, 7–11 Αἰών, … ἀρχὴν μεσότητα τέλος οὐκ ἔχων, expressed from the perspective of historical beginning).
    ③ the first cause, the beginning (philos. t.t. ODittrich, D. Systeme d. Moral I 1923, 360a, 369a;—Ael. Aristid. 43, 9 K.=1 p. 3 D.: ἀρχὴ ἁπάντων Ζεύς τε καὶ ἐκ Διὸς πάντα; Jos., C. Ap. 2, 190 God as ἀρχὴ κ. μέσα κ. τέλος τῶν πάντων [contrast SIG 1125, 10f]) of Christ ἡ ἀ. τῆς κτίσεως Rv 3:14; but the mng. beginning=‘first created’ is linguistically probable (s. above 1b and Job 40:19; also CBurney, Christ as the Ἀρχή of Creation: JTS 27, 1926, 160–77). [ὁ γὰ]ρ π̣̄ρ̣̄ (=πατὴρ) [ἀρ]|χή ἐ[ς]τ̣[ιν τῶν μ]ελλόν|των for the Father is the source of all who are to come into being in contrast to the προπάτωρ, who is without a beginning Ox 1081, 38f (SJCh 91, 1 ἀρχή; on the context, s. WTill, TU 60/5, ’55 p. 57).
    ④ a point at which two surfaces or lines meet, corner (from the perspective of an observer the object appears to begin at that point), pl. corners of a sheet Ac 10:11; 11:5 (cp. Hdt. 4, 60; Diod S 1, 35, 10).
    ⑤ a basis for further understanding, beginning τὰ στοιχεῖα τῆς ἀ. elementary principles Hb 5:12 (perh. w. an element of gentle satire: ‘the discrete items or ABC’s that compose the very beginning [of divine instructions]’; cp. MKiley, SBLSP 25, ’86, 236–45, esp. 239f). ὁ τῆς ἀ. τοῦ Χ. λόγος elementary Christian teaching 6:1.
    ⑥ an authority figure who initiates activity or process, ruler, authority (Aeschyl., Thu. et al.; ins; pap, e.g. PHal 1, 226 μαρτυρείτω ἐπὶ τῇ ἀρχῇ καὶ ἐπὶ τῷ δικαστηρίῳ; Gen 40:13, 21; 41:13; 2 Macc 4:10, 50 al., s. Magie 26; so as a loanw. in rabb. ἀ. = νόμιμος ἐπιστασία Did., Gen. 60, 9) w. ἐξουσία Lk 20:20; pl. (Oenomaus in Eus., PE 6, 7, 26 ἀρχαὶ κ. ἐξουσίαι; 4 Macc 8:7; Jos., Ant. 4, 220) Lk 12:11; Tit 3:1; MPol 10:2 (αἱ ἀρχαί can also be the officials as persons, as those who took part in the funeral procession of Sulla: Appian, Bell. Civ. 1, 106 §497.—The same mng. 2, 106 §442; 2, 118 §498 al. Likewise Diod S 34+35 Fgm. 2, 31).—Also of angelic or transcendent powers, since they were thought of as having a political organization (Damascius, Princ. 96 R.) Ro 8:38; 1 Cor 15:24; Eph 1:21; 3:10; 6:12; Col 1:16; 2:10, 15; AcPl Ha 1, 7. Cp. TestJob 49, 2; Just., D. 120, 6 end.
    ⑦ the sphere of one’s official activity, rule, office (Diod S 3, 53, 1; Appian, Bell. Civ. 1, 13 §57; Jos., C. Ap. 2, 177, Ant. 19, 273), or better domain, sphere of influence (Diod S 17, 24, 2; Appian, Syr. 23 §111; Arrian, Anab. 6, 29, 1; Polyaen. 8:55; Procop. Soph., Ep. 139) of angels Jd 6. Papias (4 v.l. for ἄρχω).—S. the lit. on ἄγγελος and HSchlier, Mächte u. Gewalten im NT: ThBl 9, 1930, 289–97.—144–50 (‘Archai’). EDNT. DELG s.v. ἄρχω D. M-M. TW. Sv.

    Ελληνικά-Αγγλικά παλαιοχριστιανική Λογοτεχνία > ἀρχή

  • 17 принцип раздельного сбора городского мусора

    1. duale Abfallwirtschaft

     

    принцип раздельного сбора городского мусора
    —
    [ http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

    EN

    dual waste management
    To reduce the quantity of packaging waste, and thereby of overall MSW, Germany introduced a far-reaching legislation to reduce waste, based on the producer's responsibility principle. Industry was given the option to set up a third party organization which would carry out the collection and sorting of sales packaging for care of manufacturers and retailers. Thus, Some 600 companies created "Duales System Deutschland" in 1990 ("Dual" because it meant creating a second collection system in parallel to the existing waste collection system of the local authorities). Duales System Deutschland (DSD), now has overall responsibility for the separate collection and recycling of packaging. At present, the Dual System is the only nationwide system for the collection and sorting of sales packaging. Packaging participating in this collection system is marked with the Green Dot. (Source: EPEBE)
    [http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

    Тематики

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    Русско-немецкий словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > принцип раздельного сбора городского мусора

  • 18 gestion commune des déchets banals et spéciaux

    1. принцип раздельного сбора городского мусора

     

    принцип раздельного сбора городского мусора
    —
    [ http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

    EN

    dual waste management
    To reduce the quantity of packaging waste, and thereby of overall MSW, Germany introduced a far-reaching legislation to reduce waste, based on the producer's responsibility principle. Industry was given the option to set up a third party organization which would carry out the collection and sorting of sales packaging for care of manufacturers and retailers. Thus, Some 600 companies created "Duales System Deutschland" in 1990 ("Dual" because it meant creating a second collection system in parallel to the existing waste collection system of the local authorities). Duales System Deutschland (DSD), now has overall responsibility for the separate collection and recycling of packaging. At present, the Dual System is the only nationwide system for the collection and sorting of sales packaging. Packaging participating in this collection system is marked with the Green Dot. (Source: EPEBE)
    [http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

    Тематики

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    Франко-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > gestion commune des déchets banals et spéciaux

  • 19 duale Abfallwirtschaft

    1. принцип раздельного сбора городского мусора

     

    принцип раздельного сбора городского мусора
    —
    [ http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

    EN

    dual waste management
    To reduce the quantity of packaging waste, and thereby of overall MSW, Germany introduced a far-reaching legislation to reduce waste, based on the producer's responsibility principle. Industry was given the option to set up a third party organization which would carry out the collection and sorting of sales packaging for care of manufacturers and retailers. Thus, Some 600 companies created "Duales System Deutschland" in 1990 ("Dual" because it meant creating a second collection system in parallel to the existing waste collection system of the local authorities). Duales System Deutschland (DSD), now has overall responsibility for the separate collection and recycling of packaging. At present, the Dual System is the only nationwide system for the collection and sorting of sales packaging. Packaging participating in this collection system is marked with the Green Dot. (Source: EPEBE)
    [http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

    Тематики

    EN

    DE

    FR

    Немецко-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > duale Abfallwirtschaft

  • 20 принцип раздельного сбора городского мусора

    1. dual waste management

     

    принцип раздельного сбора городского мусора
    —
    [ http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

    EN

    dual waste management
    To reduce the quantity of packaging waste, and thereby of overall MSW, Germany introduced a far-reaching legislation to reduce waste, based on the producer's responsibility principle. Industry was given the option to set up a third party organization which would carry out the collection and sorting of sales packaging for care of manufacturers and retailers. Thus, Some 600 companies created "Duales System Deutschland" in 1990 ("Dual" because it meant creating a second collection system in parallel to the existing waste collection system of the local authorities). Duales System Deutschland (DSD), now has overall responsibility for the separate collection and recycling of packaging. At present, the Dual System is the only nationwide system for the collection and sorting of sales packaging. Packaging participating in this collection system is marked with the Green Dot. (Source: EPEBE)
    [http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

    Тематики

    EN

    DE

    FR

    Русско-английский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > принцип раздельного сбора городского мусора

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